En France, 460000 nourrissons âgés d’un moins à deux ans, sont affectés par la bronchiolite aiguë chaque hiver. Cette infection virale, qui a pour conséquence une inflammation des voies respiratoires, est généralement traitée par des séances de kinésithérapie respiratoire (KR). Afin d’améliorer l’apprentissage des techniques de KR pédiatriques, un simulateur, représentatif d’un nourrisson de six mois présentant un encombrement moyen, a été réalisé au laboratoire SYMME. Ce premier simulateur permet aux kinésithérapeutes novices d’apprendre les gestes de base de la KR dans un environnement didactique et protégé. Ce travail s’inscrit dans la continuité de cette étude, et devra permettre à terme d’améliorer la formation, en proposant des situations didactiques variées. Dans un premier temps, un système permettant de reproduire sur le simulateur le mouvement de respiration du nourrisson a été réalisé. Puis nous avons travaillé sur la conception d’un mécanisme permettant d’obtenir un comportement mécanique variable au niveau du thorax, afin de permettre à l’apprenant de s’entrainer sur différents cas cliniques. Pour la réalisation d’un tel dispositif, nous nous sommes orientés vers des systèmes classiquement utilisés pour dissiper de l’énergie en modifiant la raideur et/ou l’amortissement de la structure. Deux dispositifs semi-actifs basés sur l’utilisation d’un vérin hydraulique ont été principalement étudiés. Ils se différencient par la façon dont l’écoulement du fluide entre les deux chambres du vérin est modifié : le premier par un changement de section de la canalisation, le deuxième par une modification des propriétés d’écoulement d’un fluide magnétorhéologique. La première solution a été validée partiellement par un kinésithérapeute référent mais n’est pas tout à fait satisfaisante. La seconde a été testée sur un banc d’essai spécifique et semble être une voie prometteuse pour la réalisation du simulateur à propriétés variables / In France, 460000 infants between one month and two years are affected by the acute bronchiolitis each winter. This viral infection which leads to an inflammation of the respiratory tract is generally treated during a respiratory physiotherapy(RP) session. In order to improve the technical learning of the paediatric RP, a simulator which represents a six month old infant with an average type of bronchiolitis was developed in the laboratory SYMME. This first simulator allows the physiotherapist students to learn the basic gestures of the RP in a didactic and safe environment. This research work follows the frame work of this study and should allow an improvement of the training by proposing various didactic situations. As a first step, a system that allows reproducing the breathing movement of an infant on the simulator was developed. Then we worked on the design of a mechanism that allows obtaining a variable mechanical behaviour of the thorax in order to enable the student to practice on different clinical cases. For the realisation of such a device, we focused on systems which are conventionally used to dissipate energy by modifying the stiffness and/or the damping of the structure. Two semi-active devices based on the usage of a cylinder/piston system were examined. They differ in the way the pressure difference between the two chambers of the cylinder is generated : first, by changing the flow geometry and second, by a modification of the fluid flow characteristics of a magnetorheological fluid. The first solution was partially validated by a physiotherapist but was not completly satisfying. The second solution was tested on a specific test bench and seems to be a promising way to realise a simulator with variable properties.

[pt] O presente trabalho é um estudo experimental sobre o escoamento laminar de óleos pesados através de dutos longos isolados termicamente e que apresentam forte dependência da viscosidade com a temperatura. O objetivo do estudo é identificar e interpretar o comportamento verificado em operações de campo onde a dependência da queda de pressão ao longo do duto com a vazão afasta-se significativamente da relação linear esperada para escoamentos hidrodinamicamente desenvolvidos. Para o estudo foi montado um experimento em escala de laboratório utilizando como fluido de trabalho uma solução de glicerina e água, que apresenta forte dependência da viscosidade com a temperatura. A solução quente de glicerina era bombeada por um tubo longo imerso em um meio refrigerado. A troca de calor do fluido com o ambiente frio produzia gradientes de temperatura radiais e axiais associados a fortes variações da viscosidade. Os experimentos conduzidos revelaram uma relação linear entre a vazão e a queda de pressão ao longo do duto para baixos e altos valores da vazão. No entanto, para valores intermediários da vazão, a relação entre vazão e queda de pressão afasta-se do comportamento linear, deixando de apresentar uma relação monotônica. Nesta região intermediária, os mesmos valores de queda de pressão foram observados para vazões de ordem de grandeza diferentes. Medidas de perfis radiais de temperatura e velocidade axial foram realizadas para duas diferentes posições axiais no duto. Sondas de termopar e a técnica de velocimetria laser- Doppler foram utilizadas neste estudo. Os perfis de temperatura apresentaram forte assimetria como decorrência da presença de escoamentos secundários originados por convecção natural. Os perfis de velocidade axial foram pouco afetados pelos escoamentos secundários. Acredita-se que o impacto observado na tensão cisalhante na parede e, portanto, na queda de pressão, esteja associado à forte variação da viscosidade junto à parede fria, e não às variações do gradiente de velocidade na parede que não se mostraram significativas. Os resultados experimentais foram comparados com simulações numéricas tridimensionais e unidimensionais fornecidas por outros pesquisadores. A relação de queda de pressão com a vazão foi bem modelada por ambos os modelos. Os perfis radiais de velocidade foram bem previstos pelo modelo tridimensional, ao contrário dos perfis radiais de temperatura que se afastaram das medições. / [en] The present work is an experimental study of laminar flows through long, thermally insulated pipes of heavy oils that present strong dependence of viscosity on temperature. The objective of the study was to reproduce and understand the behavior reported in field operations where the dependence of the pressure drop on the flow rate deviates significantly from the linear relationship expected for hydrodynamically fully developed flow. To this end, a laboratory-scale experiment was constructed employing as working fluid a glycerol-water solution displaying a strong dependence of viscosity on temperature. In the experiments, the heated glycerol solution was pumped through a long isolated pipe immersed in a cold environment. The heat exchange with the cold environment produced radial and axial thermal gradients in the fluid yielding strong viscosity variations. For the low and high ranges of the flow rate the experiments revealed a linear relationship between flow rate and pressure drop from the inlet to the exit of the test section. However, for intermediate values of the flow rate, the relationship between flow rate and pressure drop deviated from the linear behavior. Further, this relationship ceased to be monotonic. In this intermediate flow rate region, the same pressure drop values were measured for flow rates values differing in orders of magnitude. Radial profiles of temperature and axial velocity were measured at different axial positions along the pipe. Thermocouple probes and the laser- Doppler velocimetry technique were employed in this study. Temperature profiles displayed strong asymmetry as a consequence of the presence of secondary flows induced by natural convection. The axial velocity profiles were little affected by the secondary flows. It is believed that the impact observed on the wall shear stress and, as a consequence, on the pressure drop, are associated with the strong viscosity variations close to the cold pipe wall, and not with the variations of the velocity gradient at the wall that were seen to be not too significant. The experimental results obtained were compared with one and tri-dimensional numerical solutions developed by other researchers. The relationship between pressure drop and flow rate was well predicted by both numerical models. The radial velocity profiles were well predicted by the tri-dimensional calculations, while the temperature profiles predictions were seen to deviate from the experiments.

O estudo de redes hidrÃulicas para fins de operaÃÃo ou anÃlise de viabilidade para ampliaÃÃo ou recuperaÃÃo das mesmas à iniciado pela calibraÃÃo, neste contexto, entendida como identificaÃÃo de parÃmetros tais como: fator de atrito, rugosidade e diÃmetro. O MÃtodo Transiente Inverso em conjunto com Algoritmo genÃtico se mostra eficiente nessa tarefa. O referido mÃtodo emprega o MÃtodo das CaracterÃsticas na soluÃÃo das equaÃÃes de movimento para escoamento transiente em tubos de redes e a otimizaÃÃo das soluÃÃes à baseada na Teoria Evolutiva e avaliada por uma funÃÃo objetivo, que neste estudo à o somatÃrio do mÃdulo da diferenÃa entre as cargas medidas e calculadas pelo modelo para cada conjunto de soluÃÃes. Considerando que o objetivo do desenvolvimento de modelos matemÃticos para a calibraÃÃo de redes hipotÃticas à a utilizaÃÃo dos mesmos em redes reais, e que nessas, a coleta de dados de carga està sujeita a erros de mediÃÃo, seja devido a defeitos nos equipamentos seja por condiÃÃes ambiente desfavorÃveis ou outros efeitos aleatÃrios e tendo em vista a relevÃncia dos fatores de atrito nas tubulaÃÃes, pela sua relaÃÃo com perdas de carga que devem ser controladas para um Ãtimo funcionamento de redes, garantindo um abastecimento contÃnuo em quantidade e condiÃÃes de funcionamento adequados, este trabalho propÃe-se a verificar a interferÃncia da presenÃa de erros de mediÃÃo de carga transiente na identificaÃÃo dos fatores de atrito em duas redes hidrÃulicas hipotÃticas. As mesmas sÃo de portes diferentes com relaÃÃo ao nÃmero de anÃis, nÃs e tubos. Ambas sÃo alimentadas por um reservatÃrio cada. As condiÃÃes transientes sÃo atribuÃdas a uma manobra de vÃlvula instalada em um dos nÃs de cada rede. A coleta de dados de carga à restrita a 20% dos nÃs de cada rede, sendo que um deles à o nà onde se encontra a vÃlvula. O tempo de observaÃÃo do transiente hidrÃulico à restrito ao tempo da manobra de vÃlvula, 20s, e ocorre em intervalos de 0,1s, resultando em 200 registros de carga. A condiÃÃo permanente das redes à inicialmente desconhecida o conhecimento acerca da mesma à restrito a carga nos reservatÃrios e demandas nos nÃs, bem como diÃmetros dos tubos, os fatores de atrito sÃo inicialmente estipulados. A determinaÃÃo das condiÃÃes permanente e transiente bem como a identificaÃÃo dos fatores de atrito à realizada com a utilizaÃÃo de um modelo hidrÃulico e geram cargas transientes que sÃo consideradas convencionalmente verdadeiras, essas entÃo recebem incrementos de diversos erros sistemÃticos e aleatÃrios, que geram novas cargas e essas sÃo consideradas coletadas com erros de mediÃÃo. A partir dessas novas cargas sÃo realizadas identificaÃÃes de fatores de atrito, os quais sÃo comparados com os que foram obtidos considerando um caso ideal de cargas sem erros de mediÃÃo. A referida comparaÃÃo à realizada atravÃs do Erro MÃdio Relativo e da FunÃÃo Objetivo Ãtima. Os resultados encontrados demonstram que os erros de mediÃÃo interferem na identificaÃÃo dos fatores de atrito apesar de nÃo ser possÃvel delinear uma relaÃÃo entre os mesmos. / The study of hydraulic networks for operation purposes or viability analysis for extension or renovation of the same is started the calibration in this context understood as identification parameters, such as friction coefficient, surface roughness and diameter. The Transient Inverse Method in conjunction with genetic algorithm is efficient in this task shows. This method employs the method of characteristics in the solution of the equations of motion for transient flow in networks of pipes and the optimization of solutions is based on Evolutionary Theory and evaluated by an objective function, which in this study is the sum of the difference between the module loads measured and calculated by the model for each set of solutions. Whereas the objective of the development of mathematical models for calibration hypothetical networks is their use in real networks, and that these, the collection of payload data is subject to measurement errors, is due to defects in the equipment or by conditions unfavorable environment or other random effects and taking into account the relevance of friction factors in pipelines, by their relationship to head losses that must be controlled to a great operation of networks, ensuring a continuous supply in quantity and appropriate operating conditions, this work is proposed to verify the influence of the presence of transient load measurement errors in the identification of friction factors in two hypothetical hydraulic networks. They are of different sizes with the number of rings, knots and tubes. Both are each fed by a reservoir. The transient conditions are assigned to a valve maneuver installed in one of the nodes of each network. The load data collection is restricted to 20% of the nodes in each network, one of which is the node where the valve is located. The hydraulic transient observation time is restricted to the valve maneuver time, 20s, and occurs at intervals of 0.1s, resulting in 200 charge records. The permanent condition of networks is initially unknown knowledge about the same is restricted to load in the reservoirs and demands on us as well as pipe diameter, the friction factors are initially stipulated. The determination of the permanent and transient conditions and the identification of the friction factors is performed using a hydraulic model and generate transient loads which are conventionally considered true, then these various steps of receiving systematic and random errors, which generate new burdens and these are considered collected with measurement errors. From these new loads are carried IDs friction factors, which are compared with those obtained considering an ideal case with no measurement errors loads. This comparison is performed using the mean relative error and function great goal. The results show that measurement errors in the identification of interfering friction factors although not possible to draw a relationship between them.

A presente dissertação trata de um estudo teórico-experimental sobre escoamento monofásico e bifásico em um dissipador de calor baseado em microcanais. Este tipo de dissipador de calor tem sido usado para a intensificação da troca de calor em sistemas compactos e de alto desempenho. A intensificação da troca de calor promovida pelo escoamento em microcanais é acompanhada de um incremento na perda de pressão, portanto o estudo destes dois parâmetros é essencial para o entendimento dos fenômenos relacionados e fundamental para o desenvolvimento de ferramentas de projeto para dissipadores de calor baseados em microcanais. Inicialmente, um levantamento bibliográfico extenso sobre a ebulição convectiva em microcanais de reduzido diâmetro foi realizado. Este estudo da literatura trata de critérios de transição entre micro- e macro-escala, padrões de escoamento, métodos de previsão do coeficiente de transferência de calor e perda de pressão. Atenção específica foi dada a estudos de dissipadores de calor baseados em microcanais. Com base nesta análise da literatura, uma bancada experimental foi confeccionada para que dados experimentais de transferência de calor e perda de pressão pudessem ser levantados a partir de um dissipador de calor de microcanais. O dissipador de calor fabricado para este estudo é constituído de 50 microcanais retangulares dispostos paralelamente com 15 mm de comprimento, 100 µm de largura, 500 µm de profundidade e espaçados entre si de 200 µm. Experimentos foram executados para o R134a, velocidades mássicas de 400 a 1500 kg/m²s, título de vapor máximo de 0,35 e fluxos de calor de até 310 kW/m². Como conclusão deste trabalho observa-se perda de pressão elevada em relação aos valores fornecidos pelos métodos de previsão da literatura e um coeficiente de transferência de calor próximo ao estimado pelo modelo de três zonas proposto por Thome et al. (2004). / This study presents a theoretical and experimental investigation on single and two-phase flows in a microchannel based heat sink. Multi-microchannel heat sinks are able of dissipating extremely high heat fluxes under confined conditions. Such characteristics have attracted the attention of academia and industry and actually several studies are being carried out in order to evaluate and optimize such devices. Initially, an extensive investigation of the literature concerning convective boiling in micro-scale channels was performed. This literature review covers transitional criteria between micro- and macro-scale flow boiling, two phase flow patterns, heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop during convective boiling. Special attention was given to studies concerning microchannels based heat sinks. Based on this investigation, an experimental facility was built for performing heat transfer and pressure drop measurements during single-phase flow and flow boiling in microchannel based heat sinks. For this study, a microchannel based heat sink was also manufactured. The heat sink contains 50 rectangular parallel microchannels, 15 mm long, 100 µm wide by 500 µm deep and separated by 200 µm walls. Experiments were performed for R134a, mass velocity of 400-1500 kg/m²s, maximum vapor quality of 0,35 and heat fluxes up to 310 kW/m². The database obtained in the present study was compared against pressure drop and heat transfer coefficient prediction methods from the literature. It was found that no one method is accurate in predicting heat sink pressure drop while heat transfer coefficient results were accurately predicted by the 3-zone model proposed by Thome et al. (2004).

A presente dissertação de mestrado envolve o estudo da perda da pressão e dos padrões para escoamentos água/ar em um canal retangular segundo inclinações a partir do plano horizontal de -90° a 90°. Também foi avaliado o efeito nestes parâmetros de rotacionar a seção de testes em torno de seu eixo axial segundo ângulos de 45° e 60°, determinados a partir da condição de suas faces superior e inferior posicionadas horizontalmente. O texto se inicia com a apresentação de um amplo estudo da literatura sobre métodos de previsão de padrões de escoamento e perda de pressão durante escoamentos bifásicos no interior de dutos. Em seguida é descrito o aparato experimental projetado e construído para este estudo. Tal descrição inclui o detalhamento da seção de testes, que consiste em um canal retangular de seção transversal com dimensões de 6,0 x 6,5 mm². Resultados foram levantados para vazões mássicas entre 90 e 760 kg/m²s, correspondendo a velocidades superficiais entre 0,03 a 19,42 m/s e 0,1 a 0,76 m/s, para, respectivamente as fases gás e líquido. Mapas de escoamento foram desenvolvidos com base em imagens capturadas por câmera de alta velocidade, e também com base na técnica de agrupamento de dados k-means. Os escoamentos foram classificados segundo os padrões bolhas, intermitente e anular. As características hidrodinâmicas e as transições entre estes padrões foram significativamente alteradas pela inclinação do canal. Constatou-se também significativa influência da rotação em torno do eixo do canal, favorecendo efeitos de estratificação no escoamento. As transições obtidas experimentalmente foram comparadas com os métodos de previsão disponíveis na literatura. Os métodos de Taitel e Dukler (1976), para escoamento horizontal, e Taitel et al. (1980) para escoamento vertical ascendente, apresentaram as melhores previsões dos dados experimentais. Com o objetivo de estimar a parcela gravitacional da perda de pressão, levantou-se resultados para a fração de vazio superficial avaliada com base na velocidade média de bolhas alongadas e no tratamento de imagens no caso do escoamento em bolhas. Resultados de perda de pressão por atrito foram comparados com vinte métodos de previsão da literatura. As correlações de Mishima e Hibiki (1996) e Zhang et al. (2010) proporcionaram as melhores previsões para escoamento horizontal. Para escoamentos inclinados, comparou-se 25 métodos da literatura para a determinação da perda de pressão por atrito com os resultados de perda de pressão experimentais, com a perda de pressão gravitacional estimada considerando 20 métodos para a fração de vazio superficial. Desta análise constatou-se que a combinação dos métodos de Mishima e Hibiki (1996) e Zhang et al. (2010) para a previsão da parcela de perda de pressão devido ao atrito e o método de Spedding e Chen (1984) para previsão da fração de vazio superficial, utilizado para a determinação da parcela gravitacional, proporcionam previsões satisfatórias dos dados experimentais. / The present dissertation concerns a study on pressure drop and flow patterns for air/water flows inside a rectangular channel positioned according to inclination angles, relative to the horizontal plane, from -90° to 90°. The effects on flow patterns and pressure drop of rotating the test section relative to its longitudinal axis according to angles of 45° and 60° are also evaluated. Initially, a broad review of the literature concerning experimental studies and predictive methods for flow pattern and pressure drop inside channels is presented. Then, the experimental facility developed for this study is described. In this description, the test section, consisting of a rectangular channel with cross-sectional area of 6.0 x 6.5 mm² is detailed. Experimental data were obtained for mass velocities from 90 to 760 kg/m²s, corresponding to gas and liquid superficial velocities from 0.03 to 19.4 m/s and from 0.1 to 0.76 m/s, respectively. Flow patterns maps were developed based on the following approaches: analyses of two-phase flow images from a high speed video camera; and using the k-means clustering algorithm based on pressure drop and optical signals. The bubbly, intermittent and annular flow patterns were characterized. From the analyses of the data, it was found that the flow pattern transitions are significantly affected by the flow inclination and channel rotation. Two-phase flow stratification effects are enhanced by rotating the channels. Among the flow pattern predictive method evaluated in the present study, Taitel and Dukler (1976), for horizontal channels, and Taitel et al. (1980), for upward flow, provided the best predictions of the data obtained in the present study. In order of estimating the gravitational parcel of the pressure drop, superficial void fraction results were obtained based on the mean velocity of elongated bubbles, for intermittent flow, and on the image processing of bubbles, for bubbly flow. Experimental results for frictional pressure drop were compared against 20 predictive methods available in the literature. The methods of Mishima e Hibiki (1996) and Zhang et al. (2010) performed the best for horizontal flows. The frictional pressure drop predictions were also evaluated for inclined flows by comparing the measured total pressure drop against the corresponding calculated values based on the combination of 25 frictional pressure drop predictive methods and the gravitational parcel of pressure drop estimated according to 20 predictive methods for superficial void fraction. From this analysis, it was found that the combination of Mishima e Hibiki (1996) and Zhang et al. (2010) methods for frictional pressure drop with the method of Spedding e Chen (1984), for void fraction, used to determine the gravitational parcel, provide satisfactory predictions of the experimental data.

A presente dissertação trata de um estudo teórico-experimental sobre escoamento monofásico e bifásico no interior de tubos com fitas retorcidas. Esta técnica tem sido utilizada há várias décadas para a intensificação de troca de calor para escoamento monofásico e evaporação convectiva no interior de tubos. No entanto, com sua utilização, o aumento do coeficiente de troca de calor é acompanhado pelo incremento da perda de pressão. Portanto a compreensão dos fenômenos relacionados aos incrementos da perda de pressão e troca de calor são fundamentais para engenheiros projetistas. Neste estudo, inicialmente, é apresentada uma extensa revisão bibliográfica sobre padrões de escoamento, modelos para estimativa de fração de vazio e metodologias para previsão da perda de pressão em tubos com e sem fitas retorcidas para escoamentos bifásicos e monofásicos. Foram realizados experimentos em bancada experimental utilizando seção de testes com diâmetro interno de 15,9 mm e dois metros de comprimento com fitas apresentando razões de retorcimento de 3, 4, 9, 14 e , a última correspondente ao tubo sem inserto. Os experimentos foram executados para o refrigerante R134a, velocidades mássicas entre 75 e 250 kg/m²s, e títulos de vapor entre 5 e 95% no caso de escoamentos bifásicos. Resultados foram levantados para velocidades mássicas entre 100 e 450 kg/m²s para escoamentos monofásicos. Durante os ensaios foram levantados resultados de perda de pressão e identificados subjetivamente os respectivos padrões de escoamento. Como resultado final deste estudo é proposta uma correlação para previsão da perda de pressão durante o escoamento no interior de tubos com fitas retorcidas. / A theoretical and experimental study on single and two-phase flow inside tubes with twisted tapes inserts is presented. Twisted tape inserts have been used for decades as a technique of heat transfer enhancement. However, their heat transfer enhancement is accompanied by an increase of the pressure drop. Therefore, understanding the pressure drop and heat transfer mechanisms is fundamental for heat exchanger designers in order to optimize these devices when using twisted-tape inserts. Based on these aspects the present study concerns single and two-phase flows inside tubes with twisted tapes. Experiments were performed in an experimental apparatus for a 15.9 mm ID and twisted tape with twist ratios of 3, 4, 9, 14 and , the last one corresponding to a plain tube without tape. For two-phase flow, experiments were conducted for R134a, mass velocities from 75 to 250 kg/m²s and vapor qualities from 5 to 95%. In case of single-phase flow, experiments were performed for mass velocities from 100 to 450 kg/m²s. The experimental campaign was focused on pressure drop and flow pattern subjective identification. Additionally an extensive literature review on flow patterns, superficial void fraction, and methodologies for prediction of the pressure drop in plain tubes with and without twisted-tape inserts during single and two-phase flow is presented. As final result, a correlation for prediction of pressure drop during flow inside tubes with twisted tape inserts is proposed.

Apresenta um estudo teórico-experimental da ebulição convectiva do fluido refrigerante R-134a no interior de tubos lisos. Os parâmetros físicos disponíveis para medida foram: pressão, temperatura, vazão de refrigerante e potência de aquecimento, os quais, juntamente com o registro fotográfico, foram utilizados para caracterizar os padrões de escoamento e as transições, investigando-se os efeitos do diâmetro do tubo, da velocidade mássica e do fluxo de calor sobre a perda de pressão e a transferência de calor. Os principais padrões de escoamento visualizados foram: o intermitente, o anular e o estratificado, nos quais constatou-se que, as transições são governadas, principalmente, pelos efeitos da velocidade mássica e do diâmetro do tubo. Dentre estes padrões de escoamento, o anular e o estratificado foram modelados analiticamente. O modelo para o escoamento anular foi utilizado na obtenção de correlações para o fator de atrito interfacial e para espessura do filme de líquido. O modelo para o escoamento estratificado foi dividido em duas partes, uma destinada a obter a configuração da interface, a qual se mostrou côncava e a outra destinada à determinação dos fatores de atrito líquido-parede e interfacial os quais foram correlacionados / The research reports a theoretical and experimental study of convective boiling of refrigerant R-134a in smooth tubes. Tests have been carried out to measure the following physical parameters at the test section: mass flow rate, pressure and pressure drop, refrigerant and surface temperatures and the electrical power. In addition to these parameters, a photographic study has been carried out from pictures taken at the test section exit in order to determine the flow regimes that intervene under the imposed operating conditions. Effects over the pressure drop and heat transfer of the mass flow rate, heat flux, quality, and tube diameter have been investigated. Three flow regimes have been found: the intermitent, the stratified and the annular. Flow regime transitions are apparently governed by the mass velocity and tube diameter. The annular and the stratified flow regimes have been semi-empirically modeled using a mechanistic approach. The annular flow model has been applied to develop correlations for two important physical parameters: the interfacial friction factor and the film thickness. Through the stratified model, the shape of the interface has been evaluated along with correlations for the liquid to wall and interface friction factors

La présente étude porte sur l’analyse fondamentale et expérimentale des procédés d’extraction des volatils. Les méthodes conventionnelles d’hydrodistillation et d’entrainement à la vapeur dans l’extraction des composés volatils (huiles essentielles…), impliquent une cinétique ralentie voire bloquée par « le processus paradoxal ». Ce dernier est dû au couplage de la génération interne de vapeur impliquant deux transferts couplés de vapeur (par diffusion) et de chaleur (par conduction). Ces deux transferts sont alors dirigés de la surface d’échange vers l’intérieur. Seul un processus de transfert partiel de la vapeur par front progressif assure l’évolution du processus. La cinétique est ainsi inévitablement lente, générant un niveau élevé de consommation d’énergie et induisant une dégradation potentielle de la matière extraite. Pour faire face à cette situation, une modification du type de transfert est essentielle. Nous avons opté pour un transfert de type Darcy au lieu du transfert de Fick, soit un gradient de pression totale au lieu du gradient de pression partielle comme « driving force ». Nous avons ainsi choisi la Détente Instantanée Contrôlée DIC comme procédé générant, suite à la détente vers le vide, une autovaporisation instantanée couplée à un grand gradient de pression totale de l’intérieur du matériau vers le milieu environnant sous vide. La détente instantanée contrôlée (DIC) a été étudiée, selon la méthodologie des plans d’expériences dans le but d’évaluer l’impact des variables opératoires sur l’extraction et de définir les paramètres optimums. Le nombre de cycles et le temps de traitement ont été pris comme paramètres indépendants. Ces paramètres sont appropriés pour représenter les aspects mécaniques et thermiques du processus DIC. L’extraction directe de l’huile essentielle du bois de santal par DIC-MP, gérée essentiellement par le nombre de cycles, indépendamment du temps de traitement, est une autovaporisation des composés volatils. Cette nouvelle méthode a ensuite été comparée tout au long de sa mise en application à l’hydrodistillation. Alors que la méthode traditionnelle d’extraction de l’huile essentielle du bois de santal requiert 140 h, l’optimisation de la DIC nous a permis de réaliser l’extraction en seulement 6 minutes, avec des rendements pratiquement similaires. Dans un dernier temps, une approche écologique et une compréhension du phénomène mis en jeu pour l’extraction des huiles essentielles par DIC ont été abordées. La rapidité de la procédure, la réduction du coût énergétique et le bon impact environnemental font de la DIC une technique industrielle particulièrement innovante et hautement attrayante. / This study focuses on fundamental analysis and experimental work carried out on extraction via conventional and innovative processes. The extraction of volatile compounds (essential oils ...) through hydrodistillation or steam distillation as conventional methods is slowed or even blocked because of "the paradoxical process". The latter is due to the coupling of vapor and heat transfers, both directed from the exchange surface towards product core. Only partial vapor transfer by progressive forehead ensures the evolution of the process. The kinetics is so inevitably slow, implying high energy consumption and inducing a high degradation of both extracted and residual material. To face this situation, changing the nature of the transfer is essential. We considered the total pressure gradient instead of the vapor pressure gradient as "driving force". Instant Controlled Pressure Drop DIC was used. Instant releasing of high pressure/high pressure towards a vacuum leads to instant autovaporisation, implying a Darcy-type transfer of vapor within the material to the surrounding medium vacuum. Instant Controlled Pressure Drop (DIC) was investigated, according to the Response surface methodology RSM in order to evaluate the impact of process variables on the extraction and to define the optimal settings. The number of treatment cycles and treatment time were taken as independent parameters. These parameters were appropriated to represent both mechanical and thermal impacts of DIC process. Direct extraction of the essential oil of sandalwood DIC-MP, managed primarily by the number of cycles, regardless of treatment time, is an autovaporization of volatile compounds. This new method was then compared throughout its application to steam distillation. While traditional extraction method requires 140 hours, optimized DIC allowed performing essential oil extraction of sandalwood in only 6 minutes, with substantially similar yields. Finally, environment approach and understanding of the phenomena involved in DIC extraction of essential oils were addressed. By dramatically reducing the treatment time and the energy consumption, DIC is a particularly innovative, exceptionally effective and highly attractive environment-friendly essential oil extraction technique.

Dans l’industrie, des systèmes de protection collectifs doivent être mis en œuvre pour protéger aussi bien les travailleurs que l’environnement. Des filtres à fibres sont généralement disposés dans les circuits de ventilation générale pour capter ces particules en suspension dans l’air. Les performances de ces media fibreux en termes d’efficacité de collecte et consommation énergétique sont relativement bien documentées lors de leur fonctionnement dans des conditions standards (humidité et température ambiantes). Cependant, peu d’études s’intéressent à l’interaction de l’humidité de l’air avec un dépôt composé de particules nanostructurées collectées par ces media filtrants et son incidence sur l’évolution de la perte de charge. Le travail de thèse a donc consisté dans un premier temps à la mesure d’isothermes de sorption de quatre poudres nanostructurées. Un modèle semi-prédictif d’adsorption-condensation basé sur le modèle GAB et la loi de Kelvin a ensuite été proposé. La seconde partie de l’étude a permis de décrire expérimentalement la variation de perte de charge et d’épaisseur d’un milieu poreux, formé par ces mêmes particules nanostructurées, pour différentes valeurs d’humidité. Grâce à la variation d’épaisseur du milieu déterminée par trigonométrie laser et au modèle d’adsorption-condensation, la porosité pour chaque valeur d’humidité relative a pu être calculée. En incorporant les valeurs de porosité et d’épaisseur dans trois modèles de perte de charge, il a été possible de représenter de façon satisfaisante les résultats expérimentaux. Enfin, une analyse rhéologique des poudres est proposée pour quantifier leur augmentation de cohésion sous humidité / Air quality has emerged as a major public environmental and health issue. Almost all fine particles in the air are man-made or manufactured and there are many questions regarding the impact of ultrafine (<100nm) particles on human health. Thus, in most cases, institutions use large-scale protection equipment to protect workers. These institutions often use particulate air filters placed within the flow of general ventilation. Almost all of the available data corresponds to standard ambient air conditions. Despite this, few studies focus on the interaction of water moisture on the deposit formed by these accumulated nanoparticles and the impact on the pressure drop. The first part of this study consists of the measurement of sorption isotherms of four nanostructured powders. A semi-predictive sorption model based on the theory of the multimolecular adsorption (described by the GAB equation) and on the capillary condensation (Kelvin’s law) was developed. The second part of the study experimentally describes the thickness and pressure drop variation of a porous medium formed by these nanostructured particles for different values of humidity. Through the thickness variation of the media - determined by laser trigonometry - and adsorption-condensation model, the porosity for each humidity value has been calculated. Following this, three pressure drop models available in the literature have been modified by introducing cake thickness and porosity variation according to relative humidity. This allows us to model the experimental data for all the samples. Finally, a rheological analysis of powders is proposed to quantify the cohesion changes under moisture conditions

Les filtres plissés à Très Haute Efficacité (THE) sont utilisés pour le maintien du confinement des substances radioactives dans les installations nucléaires ; ils constituent ainsi un des éléments sensibles de la sûreté nucléaire. Certains scénarios accidentels, comme l’apparition d’une brèche sur une tuyauterie avec relâchement de vapeur, peuvent conduire à une forte augmentation de l’humidité relative de l’effluent gazeux filtré. Ces travaux permettent de pallier le manque de données analytiques dans la littérature concernant le comportement des filtres plissés THE, en termes de variations de leur perte de charge et de leur efficacité, en cas d’exposition à un débit d’air humide non saturé. Des expériences de colmatage de filtres ont été réalisées sur un banc d’essais à l’aide de deux aérosols : un aérosol non-hygroscopique micronique d’alumine et un aérosol hygroscopique submicronique de chlorure de sodium. Les résultats ont mis en évidence que l’influence de l’humidité durant le colmatage d’un filtre THE dépend de plusieurs paramètres : la géométrie du filtre (plane ou plissée), la granulométrie et la nature hygroscopique de l’aérosol de colmatage et enfin, le temps d’interaction entre l’aérosol et l’air humide. Des mesures d’efficacité des filtres plissés vierges et à différents degrés de colmatage, réalisées avec l’aérosol normalisé d’uranine, se sont également révélées sensibles à la présence plus ou moins importante d’humidité relative dans l’air. Enfin, l’ensemble des résultats a permis d’élaborer une approche empirique d’estimation de l’évolution de la perte de charge d’un filtre THE ; le modèle qui en résulte est applicable durant la formation sous humidité d’un gâteau de particules sans réduction de la surface de filtration / Pleated High Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA) filters are used for maintaining the containment of radioactive substances in nuclear plants; thus, they are sensitive elements of nuclear safety. Some accidental situations, such as the emergence of a hole on a pipe with release of steam, can lead to a high increase of the air humidity. This work can overcome the lack of analytical data in the literature regarding the behaviour of pleated HEPA filters, in terms of changes in pressure drop and efficiency, in presence of humidity (unsaturated air). Experimental clogging tests have been performed on a test bench with two aerosols: non-hygroscopic micronic alumina particles and hygroscopic submicronic sodium chloride particles. The results showed that the influence of humidity during the clogging of a HEPA filter depends on several parameters: the geometry of the filter (plane or pleated), the size distribution and hygroscopicity of the aerosol clogging and finally the interaction time between the aerosol and humid air. Measurements of efficiency of clean and clogged filters (at different degrees of clogging), performed with the normalized soda fluorescein aerosol, are also sensitive to the presence of more or less relative humidity in the air. Finally, all results helped to develop an empirical model for estimating the evolution of the pressure drop of HEPA filters; this model is applicable during the formation of the particulate cake in presence of humidity without reducing of the surface area filtration