We examined parental psychopathology and family environment in subthreshold and DSM-IV threshold conditions of social anxiety disorder (SAD) in a representative cohort sample of 1,395 adolescents. Offspring and parental psychopathology was assessed using the DIAX/ M-CIDI; recalled parental rearing and family functioning via questionnaire. Diagnostic interviews in parents were supplemented by family history reports from offspring. The cumulative lifetime incidence was 23.07% for symptomatic SAD, and 18.38 and 7.41% for subthreshold and threshold SAD, respectively. The specific parent-tooffspring association for SAD occurred for threshold SAD only. For subthreshold and threshold SAD similar associations were found with other parental anxiety disorders, depression and substance use disorders. Parental rearing behaviour, but not family functioning, was associated with offspring threshold SAD, and although less strong and less consistent, also with subthreshold SAD. Results suggest a continued graded relationship between familial risk factors and offspring SAD. Parental psychopathology and negative parental styles may be used defining high-risk groups to assign individuals with already subthreshold conditions of SAD to early intervention programs.

Background. To examine the role of parental psychopathology and family environment for the risk of social anxiety disorder (SAD) in offspring from childhood to early adulthood, covering an observational period of 10 years. Method. A community sample of 1,395 adolescents (aged 14 to 17 years at baseline) was prospectively followed-up over the core high risk period for SAD onset. DSM-IV offspring and parental psychopathology was assessed using the Munich-Composite International Diagnostic Interview; direct diagnostic interviews in parents were supplemented by family history reports from offspring. Parental rearing was assessed by the Questionnaire of Recalled Rearing Behavior in offspring, family functioning by the McMaster Family Assessment Device in parents. Results. Parental SAD was associated with the offspring’s risk to develop SAD (OR = 3.3, 95%CI: 1.4-8.0). Additionally, other parental anxiety disorders (OR = 2.9, 95%CI: 1.4-6.1), depression (OR = 2.6, 95%CI: 1.2-5.4) and alcohol use disorders (OR = 2.8, 95%CI: 1.3-6.1) were associated with offspring SAD. Offspring’s reports of parental overprotection, rejection and lack of emotional warmth, but not parental reports of family functioning were associated with offspring SAD. Analyses of interaction of parental psychopathology and parental rearing indicated combined effects on the risk for offspring SAD. Conclusions. These findings extend previous results in showing that both parental psychopathology and parental rearing are consistently associated with the risk for offspring SAD. As independent and interactive effects of parental psychopathology and parental rearing may have already manifested in early adolescence, these factors appear crucial and promising for targeted prevention programs.

Introdução O Transtorno de Déficit de Atenção/Hiperatividade (TDAH) está associado a um significativo impacto negativo em diferentes esferas da vida dos pacientes e de seus familiares. O tratamento medicamentoso com metilfenidato (MFD), embora reduza os prejuízos associados ao transtorno, não é universalmente eficaz. Existem poucos estudos sobre fatores preditores de resposta ao MFD e a maior parte das informações origina-se de uma única amostra. Objetivos O presente estudo tem por objetivo avaliar fatores preditores de resposta ao tratamento com MFD em crianças e adolescentes com TDAH. Especificamente, foram estudados fatores clínicos, demográficos, funcionamento familiar, psicopatologia parental e fatores ambientais adversos. Métodos Este é um estudo longitudinal com um design de quase-experimento. Crianças e adolescentes com TDAH e indicação primária de MFD foram tratadas e acompanhadas por 6 meses por psiquiatras da infância e adolescência. Foi utilizado MFD em doses otimizadas até o máximo de efeito ou o surgimento de efeitos colaterais limitantes. A eficácia foi avaliada pelas escalas SNAP-IV e CGI-G, preenchidas pelos pais e pelo médico, respectivamente. Os fatores preditores avaliados pertencem a três dimensões: clínica e demográfica, características familiares (psicopatologia parental e funcionamento familiar) e fatores de adversidade psicossocial. O funcionamento familiar foi avaliado através da escala FES; a avaliação de psicopatologia parental foi realizada através da entrevista diagnóstica SCID-IV, da escala ASRS e de avaliação de sintomas de psicopatia. Os fatores de adversidade psicossocial foram derivados dos Indicadores de Adversidade de Rutter. A análise estatística foi realizada através dos testes do 2 ou teste exato de Fisher (para variáveis categóricas) e teste t de Student (para variáveis contínuas). Foram desenvolvidos modelos multivariados para avaliação dos fatores preditores de resposta através de modelos de efeitos mistos. Resultados Foram incluídos 125 pacientes nas análises. Nas análises univariadas, menor idade (p=0,01), subtipo combinado de TDAH (TDAH-C) (p<0,001), comorbidade com Transtorno de Conduta (TC) (p=0,03) e Transtorno de Oposição e Desafio (TOD) (p<0,001) foram associados a pior desfecho. No funcionamento familiar, as dimensões de organização (p=<0,001) e coesão (p=0,01) foram preditores de melhor resposta. A dimensão de conflito (p=<0,001) esteve associada à pior resposta. Em relação à psicopatologia materna, a presença de sintomas antisociais (p=0,002), o número de diagnósticos psiquiátricos de Eixo I (p=0,03) e a gravidade de sintomas de TDAH (p=<0,001) também foram preditores de pior resposta. A psicopatologia paterna não esteve associada à resposta ao tratamento. Em termos de adversidade psicossocial, apenas gestação indesejada (p=0,002) esteve associada à pior desfecho. Nas análises multivariadas, TDAH-C, comorbidade com TOD e maior gravidade de sintomas basais (CGAS) foram preditores de pior resposta. Da mesma forma, conflito familiar e sintomas maternos de TDAH predisseram um pior resultado. O efeito de gestação indesejada manteve-se estatisticamente significativo no modelo multivariado. Em um modelo que abrangeu todas as dimensões estudadas, os seguintes fatores foram preditores de pior resposta ao tratamento: TDAH-C, comorbidade com TOD, sintomas maternos de TDAH e gestação indesejada. CONCLUSÃO Este é o primeiro estudo realizado em população de país em desenvolvimento a avaliar o impacto de diferentes fatores adversos psicossociais na resposta a metilfenidato em crianças e adolescentes com TDAH. Demonstramos que o subtipo combinado de TDAH, a comorbidade com TOD, sintomas maternos de TDAH e gestação indesejada foram preditores de pior resposta ao MFD. Tais achados ressaltam a importância de ter-se uma visão ampla no atendimento destas crianças, levando em consideração o ambiente no qual elas estão inseridas e possíveis fatores preditores de piores desfechos. Além disso, os nossos resultados enfatizam a importância de se avaliar os pais no atendimento de crianças e adolescentes, especialmente investigando sintomas maternos de TDAH. Pesquisas futuras devem expandir o conhecimento acerca de interações entre fatores genéticos e ambientais, possibilitando que sejam desenvolvidas abordagens mais eficazes e que contribuam para a redução do impacto negativo deste transtorno. / Introduction Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is associated with a negative impact in different aspects of patients and their relatives’ lives. Although pharmacological treatment with methylphenidate (MPH) may reduce the impairment associated with the disorder, it is not universally effective. There are few studies of the predictive factors of MPH treatment response and most of available data come from a single sample. Objectives The aim of our study was to evaluate the impact of demographic, clinical, familial (parental psychopathology and family functioning), and psychosocial adversity factors on the response to methylphenidate in a naturalistic sample of children and adolescents with ADHD. Methods This is a longitudinal study with a quasi-experiment design. Children and adolescents with ADHD and a primary indication for MPH treatment were treated and followed for 6 months by child and adolescent psychiatrists. Medication doses were augmented until no further clinical improvement was detected or there were limiting side effects. Treatment response was evaluated according to SNAP-IV and CGI-S scales, completed by parents and researchers, respectively. Predictive factors were divided into three dimensions: clinical and demographic, family characteristics (parental psychopathology and family functioning) and psychosocial adversity. Family functioning was evaluated by the FES scale; parental evaluation consisted of a diagnostic interview (SCID-IV), self-reported ASRS scale and psychopathic symptoms investigation. Psychosocial adversity factors were derived from Rutter’s indicators of adversity. Statistical analysis were performed using 2 test or Fisher’s Exact Test (categorical variables), and Student t test (continuous variables with normal distribution). Multivariable models were constructed with a Mixed-Effects Model (MEM) approach for analysis of predictive factors of treatment response. Results One hundred and twenty-five patients were included. In the univariate analysis, younger age (p=.01), the presence of ADHD combined subtype (p<.001), CD (p=.03) and ODD (p<.001) were associated with a worse response to treatment. Higher scores on the organization (p=<.001) and cohesion (p=.01) dimensions of FES were associated with better response to treatment, while more conflicted families had a worse response (p=<.001). In terms of maternal psychopathology, antisocial symptoms (p=.002) and number of Axis I diagnosis (p=.03) were associated with a worse response to methylphenidate. Also, maternal ADHD symptoms predicted a worse response to treatment (p=<.001). Paternal psychopathology did not predict treatment response. In terms of psychosocial adversity, only undesirable pregnancy (p=.002) predicted a worse response to treatment. In the multivariate analysis, ADHD combined subtype, ODD comorbidity and lower baseline CGAS scores were significant predictors of a reduced response to treatment. Family conflict and maternal ADHD symptoms were also significant predictors of poor response. Undesirable pregnancy also remained significant in the multivariate analysis. A final multivariate mixed-effect model was created including significant predictors of response in each individual multivariate model. Results indicated that ADHD combined subtype, ODD diagnosis, maternal ADHD symptoms, and undesirable pregnancy were significant predictors of a reduced response to methylphenidate during 6 months of treatment. Conclusion This is the first study in a developing country to evaluate the impact of different adversity factors on ADHD treatment response in children and adolescents. We were able to demonstrate that ADHD combined subtype, ODD comorbidity, ADHD maternal symptoms and undesirable pregnancy were predictors of a worse response to MPH. These findings highlight the need to have a global perspective on children’s environment and be aware of the presence of negative predictors of treatment response. In addiction, our results stress the role of parental evaluation, especially maternal ADHD symptoms. Future research should expand our knowledge on how genetic factors interact with environmental factors, which might pave the road to the development of alternative clinical strategies that might reduce the burden associated with ADHD.

Introdução O Transtorno de Déficit de Atenção/Hiperatividade (TDAH) está associado a um significativo impacto negativo em diferentes esferas da vida dos pacientes e de seus familiares. O tratamento medicamentoso com metilfenidato (MFD), embora reduza os prejuízos associados ao transtorno, não é universalmente eficaz. Existem poucos estudos sobre fatores preditores de resposta ao MFD e a maior parte das informações origina-se de uma única amostra. Objetivos O presente estudo tem por objetivo avaliar fatores preditores de resposta ao tratamento com MFD em crianças e adolescentes com TDAH. Especificamente, foram estudados fatores clínicos, demográficos, funcionamento familiar, psicopatologia parental e fatores ambientais adversos. Métodos Este é um estudo longitudinal com um design de quase-experimento. Crianças e adolescentes com TDAH e indicação primária de MFD foram tratadas e acompanhadas por 6 meses por psiquiatras da infância e adolescência. Foi utilizado MFD em doses otimizadas até o máximo de efeito ou o surgimento de efeitos colaterais limitantes. A eficácia foi avaliada pelas escalas SNAP-IV e CGI-G, preenchidas pelos pais e pelo médico, respectivamente. Os fatores preditores avaliados pertencem a três dimensões: clínica e demográfica, características familiares (psicopatologia parental e funcionamento familiar) e fatores de adversidade psicossocial. O funcionamento familiar foi avaliado através da escala FES; a avaliação de psicopatologia parental foi realizada através da entrevista diagnóstica SCID-IV, da escala ASRS e de avaliação de sintomas de psicopatia. Os fatores de adversidade psicossocial foram derivados dos Indicadores de Adversidade de Rutter. A análise estatística foi realizada através dos testes do 2 ou teste exato de Fisher (para variáveis categóricas) e teste t de Student (para variáveis contínuas). Foram desenvolvidos modelos multivariados para avaliação dos fatores preditores de resposta através de modelos de efeitos mistos. Resultados Foram incluídos 125 pacientes nas análises. Nas análises univariadas, menor idade (p=0,01), subtipo combinado de TDAH (TDAH-C) (p<0,001), comorbidade com Transtorno de Conduta (TC) (p=0,03) e Transtorno de Oposição e Desafio (TOD) (p<0,001) foram associados a pior desfecho. No funcionamento familiar, as dimensões de organização (p=<0,001) e coesão (p=0,01) foram preditores de melhor resposta. A dimensão de conflito (p=<0,001) esteve associada à pior resposta. Em relação à psicopatologia materna, a presença de sintomas antisociais (p=0,002), o número de diagnósticos psiquiátricos de Eixo I (p=0,03) e a gravidade de sintomas de TDAH (p=<0,001) também foram preditores de pior resposta. A psicopatologia paterna não esteve associada à resposta ao tratamento. Em termos de adversidade psicossocial, apenas gestação indesejada (p=0,002) esteve associada à pior desfecho. Nas análises multivariadas, TDAH-C, comorbidade com TOD e maior gravidade de sintomas basais (CGAS) foram preditores de pior resposta. Da mesma forma, conflito familiar e sintomas maternos de TDAH predisseram um pior resultado. O efeito de gestação indesejada manteve-se estatisticamente significativo no modelo multivariado. Em um modelo que abrangeu todas as dimensões estudadas, os seguintes fatores foram preditores de pior resposta ao tratamento: TDAH-C, comorbidade com TOD, sintomas maternos de TDAH e gestação indesejada. CONCLUSÃO Este é o primeiro estudo realizado em população de país em desenvolvimento a avaliar o impacto de diferentes fatores adversos psicossociais na resposta a metilfenidato em crianças e adolescentes com TDAH. Demonstramos que o subtipo combinado de TDAH, a comorbidade com TOD, sintomas maternos de TDAH e gestação indesejada foram preditores de pior resposta ao MFD. Tais achados ressaltam a importância de ter-se uma visão ampla no atendimento destas crianças, levando em consideração o ambiente no qual elas estão inseridas e possíveis fatores preditores de piores desfechos. Além disso, os nossos resultados enfatizam a importância de se avaliar os pais no atendimento de crianças e adolescentes, especialmente investigando sintomas maternos de TDAH. Pesquisas futuras devem expandir o conhecimento acerca de interações entre fatores genéticos e ambientais, possibilitando que sejam desenvolvidas abordagens mais eficazes e que contribuam para a redução do impacto negativo deste transtorno. / Introduction Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is associated with a negative impact in different aspects of patients and their relatives’ lives. Although pharmacological treatment with methylphenidate (MPH) may reduce the impairment associated with the disorder, it is not universally effective. There are few studies of the predictive factors of MPH treatment response and most of available data come from a single sample. Objectives The aim of our study was to evaluate the impact of demographic, clinical, familial (parental psychopathology and family functioning), and psychosocial adversity factors on the response to methylphenidate in a naturalistic sample of children and adolescents with ADHD. Methods This is a longitudinal study with a quasi-experiment design. Children and adolescents with ADHD and a primary indication for MPH treatment were treated and followed for 6 months by child and adolescent psychiatrists. Medication doses were augmented until no further clinical improvement was detected or there were limiting side effects. Treatment response was evaluated according to SNAP-IV and CGI-S scales, completed by parents and researchers, respectively. Predictive factors were divided into three dimensions: clinical and demographic, family characteristics (parental psychopathology and family functioning) and psychosocial adversity. Family functioning was evaluated by the FES scale; parental evaluation consisted of a diagnostic interview (SCID-IV), self-reported ASRS scale and psychopathic symptoms investigation. Psychosocial adversity factors were derived from Rutter’s indicators of adversity. Statistical analysis were performed using 2 test or Fisher’s Exact Test (categorical variables), and Student t test (continuous variables with normal distribution). Multivariable models were constructed with a Mixed-Effects Model (MEM) approach for analysis of predictive factors of treatment response. Results One hundred and twenty-five patients were included. In the univariate analysis, younger age (p=.01), the presence of ADHD combined subtype (p<.001), CD (p=.03) and ODD (p<.001) were associated with a worse response to treatment. Higher scores on the organization (p=<.001) and cohesion (p=.01) dimensions of FES were associated with better response to treatment, while more conflicted families had a worse response (p=<.001). In terms of maternal psychopathology, antisocial symptoms (p=.002) and number of Axis I diagnosis (p=.03) were associated with a worse response to methylphenidate. Also, maternal ADHD symptoms predicted a worse response to treatment (p=<.001). Paternal psychopathology did not predict treatment response. In terms of psychosocial adversity, only undesirable pregnancy (p=.002) predicted a worse response to treatment. In the multivariate analysis, ADHD combined subtype, ODD comorbidity and lower baseline CGAS scores were significant predictors of a reduced response to treatment. Family conflict and maternal ADHD symptoms were also significant predictors of poor response. Undesirable pregnancy also remained significant in the multivariate analysis. A final multivariate mixed-effect model was created including significant predictors of response in each individual multivariate model. Results indicated that ADHD combined subtype, ODD diagnosis, maternal ADHD symptoms, and undesirable pregnancy were significant predictors of a reduced response to methylphenidate during 6 months of treatment. Conclusion This is the first study in a developing country to evaluate the impact of different adversity factors on ADHD treatment response in children and adolescents. We were able to demonstrate that ADHD combined subtype, ODD comorbidity, ADHD maternal symptoms and undesirable pregnancy were predictors of a worse response to MPH. These findings highlight the need to have a global perspective on children’s environment and be aware of the presence of negative predictors of treatment response. In addiction, our results stress the role of parental evaluation, especially maternal ADHD symptoms. Future research should expand our knowledge on how genetic factors interact with environmental factors, which might pave the road to the development of alternative clinical strategies that might reduce the burden associated with ADHD.

Introdução O Transtorno de Déficit de Atenção/Hiperatividade (TDAH) está associado a um significativo impacto negativo em diferentes esferas da vida dos pacientes e de seus familiares. O tratamento medicamentoso com metilfenidato (MFD), embora reduza os prejuízos associados ao transtorno, não é universalmente eficaz. Existem poucos estudos sobre fatores preditores de resposta ao MFD e a maior parte das informações origina-se de uma única amostra. Objetivos O presente estudo tem por objetivo avaliar fatores preditores de resposta ao tratamento com MFD em crianças e adolescentes com TDAH. Especificamente, foram estudados fatores clínicos, demográficos, funcionamento familiar, psicopatologia parental e fatores ambientais adversos. Métodos Este é um estudo longitudinal com um design de quase-experimento. Crianças e adolescentes com TDAH e indicação primária de MFD foram tratadas e acompanhadas por 6 meses por psiquiatras da infância e adolescência. Foi utilizado MFD em doses otimizadas até o máximo de efeito ou o surgimento de efeitos colaterais limitantes. A eficácia foi avaliada pelas escalas SNAP-IV e CGI-G, preenchidas pelos pais e pelo médico, respectivamente. Os fatores preditores avaliados pertencem a três dimensões: clínica e demográfica, características familiares (psicopatologia parental e funcionamento familiar) e fatores de adversidade psicossocial. O funcionamento familiar foi avaliado através da escala FES; a avaliação de psicopatologia parental foi realizada através da entrevista diagnóstica SCID-IV, da escala ASRS e de avaliação de sintomas de psicopatia. Os fatores de adversidade psicossocial foram derivados dos Indicadores de Adversidade de Rutter. A análise estatística foi realizada através dos testes do 2 ou teste exato de Fisher (para variáveis categóricas) e teste t de Student (para variáveis contínuas). Foram desenvolvidos modelos multivariados para avaliação dos fatores preditores de resposta através de modelos de efeitos mistos. Resultados Foram incluídos 125 pacientes nas análises. Nas análises univariadas, menor idade (p=0,01), subtipo combinado de TDAH (TDAH-C) (p<0,001), comorbidade com Transtorno de Conduta (TC) (p=0,03) e Transtorno de Oposição e Desafio (TOD) (p<0,001) foram associados a pior desfecho. No funcionamento familiar, as dimensões de organização (p=<0,001) e coesão (p=0,01) foram preditores de melhor resposta. A dimensão de conflito (p=<0,001) esteve associada à pior resposta. Em relação à psicopatologia materna, a presença de sintomas antisociais (p=0,002), o número de diagnósticos psiquiátricos de Eixo I (p=0,03) e a gravidade de sintomas de TDAH (p=<0,001) também foram preditores de pior resposta. A psicopatologia paterna não esteve associada à resposta ao tratamento. Em termos de adversidade psicossocial, apenas gestação indesejada (p=0,002) esteve associada à pior desfecho. Nas análises multivariadas, TDAH-C, comorbidade com TOD e maior gravidade de sintomas basais (CGAS) foram preditores de pior resposta. Da mesma forma, conflito familiar e sintomas maternos de TDAH predisseram um pior resultado. O efeito de gestação indesejada manteve-se estatisticamente significativo no modelo multivariado. Em um modelo que abrangeu todas as dimensões estudadas, os seguintes fatores foram preditores de pior resposta ao tratamento: TDAH-C, comorbidade com TOD, sintomas maternos de TDAH e gestação indesejada. CONCLUSÃO Este é o primeiro estudo realizado em população de país em desenvolvimento a avaliar o impacto de diferentes fatores adversos psicossociais na resposta a metilfenidato em crianças e adolescentes com TDAH. Demonstramos que o subtipo combinado de TDAH, a comorbidade com TOD, sintomas maternos de TDAH e gestação indesejada foram preditores de pior resposta ao MFD. Tais achados ressaltam a importância de ter-se uma visão ampla no atendimento destas crianças, levando em consideração o ambiente no qual elas estão inseridas e possíveis fatores preditores de piores desfechos. Além disso, os nossos resultados enfatizam a importância de se avaliar os pais no atendimento de crianças e adolescentes, especialmente investigando sintomas maternos de TDAH. Pesquisas futuras devem expandir o conhecimento acerca de interações entre fatores genéticos e ambientais, possibilitando que sejam desenvolvidas abordagens mais eficazes e que contribuam para a redução do impacto negativo deste transtorno. / Introduction Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is associated with a negative impact in different aspects of patients and their relatives’ lives. Although pharmacological treatment with methylphenidate (MPH) may reduce the impairment associated with the disorder, it is not universally effective. There are few studies of the predictive factors of MPH treatment response and most of available data come from a single sample. Objectives The aim of our study was to evaluate the impact of demographic, clinical, familial (parental psychopathology and family functioning), and psychosocial adversity factors on the response to methylphenidate in a naturalistic sample of children and adolescents with ADHD. Methods This is a longitudinal study with a quasi-experiment design. Children and adolescents with ADHD and a primary indication for MPH treatment were treated and followed for 6 months by child and adolescent psychiatrists. Medication doses were augmented until no further clinical improvement was detected or there were limiting side effects. Treatment response was evaluated according to SNAP-IV and CGI-S scales, completed by parents and researchers, respectively. Predictive factors were divided into three dimensions: clinical and demographic, family characteristics (parental psychopathology and family functioning) and psychosocial adversity. Family functioning was evaluated by the FES scale; parental evaluation consisted of a diagnostic interview (SCID-IV), self-reported ASRS scale and psychopathic symptoms investigation. Psychosocial adversity factors were derived from Rutter’s indicators of adversity. Statistical analysis were performed using 2 test or Fisher’s Exact Test (categorical variables), and Student t test (continuous variables with normal distribution). Multivariable models were constructed with a Mixed-Effects Model (MEM) approach for analysis of predictive factors of treatment response. Results One hundred and twenty-five patients were included. In the univariate analysis, younger age (p=.01), the presence of ADHD combined subtype (p<.001), CD (p=.03) and ODD (p<.001) were associated with a worse response to treatment. Higher scores on the organization (p=<.001) and cohesion (p=.01) dimensions of FES were associated with better response to treatment, while more conflicted families had a worse response (p=<.001). In terms of maternal psychopathology, antisocial symptoms (p=.002) and number of Axis I diagnosis (p=.03) were associated with a worse response to methylphenidate. Also, maternal ADHD symptoms predicted a worse response to treatment (p=<.001). Paternal psychopathology did not predict treatment response. In terms of psychosocial adversity, only undesirable pregnancy (p=.002) predicted a worse response to treatment. In the multivariate analysis, ADHD combined subtype, ODD comorbidity and lower baseline CGAS scores were significant predictors of a reduced response to treatment. Family conflict and maternal ADHD symptoms were also significant predictors of poor response. Undesirable pregnancy also remained significant in the multivariate analysis. A final multivariate mixed-effect model was created including significant predictors of response in each individual multivariate model. Results indicated that ADHD combined subtype, ODD diagnosis, maternal ADHD symptoms, and undesirable pregnancy were significant predictors of a reduced response to methylphenidate during 6 months of treatment. Conclusion This is the first study in a developing country to evaluate the impact of different adversity factors on ADHD treatment response in children and adolescents. We were able to demonstrate that ADHD combined subtype, ODD comorbidity, ADHD maternal symptoms and undesirable pregnancy were predictors of a worse response to MPH. These findings highlight the need to have a global perspective on children’s environment and be aware of the presence of negative predictors of treatment response. In addiction, our results stress the role of parental evaluation, especially maternal ADHD symptoms. Future research should expand our knowledge on how genetic factors interact with environmental factors, which might pave the road to the development of alternative clinical strategies that might reduce the burden associated with ADHD.

We examined parental psychopathology and family environment in subthreshold and DSM-IV threshold conditions of social anxiety disorder (SAD) in a representative cohort sample of 1,395 adolescents. Offspring and parental psychopathology was assessed using the DIAX/ M-CIDI; recalled parental rearing and family functioning via questionnaire. Diagnostic interviews in parents were supplemented by family history reports from offspring. The cumulative lifetime incidence was 23.07% for symptomatic SAD, and 18.38 and 7.41% for subthreshold and threshold SAD, respectively. The specific parent-tooffspring association for SAD occurred for threshold SAD only. For subthreshold and threshold SAD similar associations were found with other parental anxiety disorders, depression and substance use disorders. Parental rearing behaviour, but not family functioning, was associated with offspring threshold SAD, and although less strong and less consistent, also with subthreshold SAD. Results suggest a continued graded relationship between familial risk factors and offspring SAD. Parental psychopathology and negative parental styles may be used defining high-risk groups to assign individuals with already subthreshold conditions of SAD to early intervention programs.

Parental psychopathology and unfavorable family environment are established risk factors for onset of offspring social phobia (SP), but their associations with the further course, e.g., persistence of the disorder, remain understudied. A community cohort of 1395 adolescents and their parents was followed-up over almost 10 years using the DIA-X/M-CIDI. Parental diagnostic interviews were supplemented by family history data. Parental rearing was retrospectively assessed by the Questionnaire of Recalled Parental Rearing Behavior in offspring, and family functioning by the Family Assessment Device in parents. Persistence measures (proportion of years affected since onset) were derived from diagnostic interviews, using age of onset, age of recency, and course information. Lack of emotional warmth and dysfunctional family functioning characteristics were associated with higher SP persistence, particularly in interaction with parental psychopathology. Predictors for SP persistence differ from those predicting SP onset. Unfavorable family environment alone and in interaction with parental disorders predict higher SP persistence.

Background. To examine the role of parental psychopathology and family environment for the risk of social anxiety disorder (SAD) in offspring from childhood to early adulthood, covering an observational period of 10 years. Method. A community sample of 1,395 adolescents (aged 14 to 17 years at baseline) was prospectively followed-up over the core high risk period for SAD onset. DSM-IV offspring and parental psychopathology was assessed using the Munich-Composite International Diagnostic Interview; direct diagnostic interviews in parents were supplemented by family history reports from offspring. Parental rearing was assessed by the Questionnaire of Recalled Rearing Behavior in offspring, family functioning by the McMaster Family Assessment Device in parents. Results. Parental SAD was associated with the offspring’s risk to develop SAD (OR = 3.3, 95%CI: 1.4-8.0). Additionally, other parental anxiety disorders (OR = 2.9, 95%CI: 1.4-6.1), depression (OR = 2.6, 95%CI: 1.2-5.4) and alcohol use disorders (OR = 2.8, 95%CI: 1.3-6.1) were associated with offspring SAD. Offspring’s reports of parental overprotection, rejection and lack of emotional warmth, but not parental reports of family functioning were associated with offspring SAD. Analyses of interaction of parental psychopathology and parental rearing indicated combined effects on the risk for offspring SAD. Conclusions. These findings extend previous results in showing that both parental psychopathology and parental rearing are consistently associated with the risk for offspring SAD. As independent and interactive effects of parental psychopathology and parental rearing may have already manifested in early adolescence, these factors appear crucial and promising for targeted prevention programs.