Skogsbränder utgör ett stort problem både lokalt, regionalt och globalt. De förstör stora värden, frigör stora mängder kol ut i atmosfären och är mycket resurskrävande att bekämpa. Under markytan kan glödbränder fortsätta långt efter att flambranden ovan mark är släckt. Glödbränder brinner mycket långsammare än de öppna flambränderna, men är istället svårare att upptäcka och ställer andra krav vid bekämpning. En typ av glödbrand som kan påträffas i skogsbränder är torvbränder. Det är glödbränder som uppstår i torvmarker som utsatts för torka. Branden äter sig sakta igenom torven och kan gå djupt ner i marken. Svårigheter med att lokalisera bränderna och att få ner tillräckligt med vatten i de djupare torvlagerna gör dem svåra att släcka. Idag används ofta dimspikar, även kallade jordspett, för att släcka bränder som gått ner under markytan. På vissa ställen har även skärsläckaren börjat användas. Detta arbete syftar till att ge en bättre förståelse för de två verktygens funktion och effektivitet vid släckarbete av torvbränder. För att göra det har två tester genomförts på Luleå räddningstjänsts övningsfält, ett för dimspik och ett för skärsläckare. En försöksuppställning byggdes upp med en invändig tvärsnittsarea på 80×80 cm och en höjd på 1,1 m. Den fylldes sedan med torv som packades lätt tills torvlagret var 1 m tjockt. Det som undersöktes var verktygens penetreringstid för vattnet att nå 1 m ner i torven samt hur stor spridning vattnet fick över tvärsnittsarean på djupet 1 m. Båda verktygen hade liknande flöden (56 l/min för skärsläckaren och 58 l/min för dimspiken) så de uppmätta skillnaderna i resultat berodde på hur vattnet transporterades, inte på mängden vatten. Skärsläckaren slog igenom på cirka 1 sekund och bildade ett utgångshål på cirka 1 dm2, där det var blött ytterliga någon centimeter runtomkring för en total våt area på cirka 2 dm2. Testet avslutades efter 30 sekunder då ingen förändring kunde ses i storleken på utgångshålet och den våta arean från efter de första få sekunderna. Vattnet sprutade rakt igenom torven. Dimspiken vätte igenom efter 26 sekunder och den våta arean växte kontinuerligt. Inget utgångshål bildades i detta fall. När dimspiken stängdes av efter 1 minut och 45 sekunder, så hade cirka 32 dm2 blivit blött; vilket motsvarar ungefär halva tvärsnittarean hos försöksuppställningen. Spridning fortsatte efter att dimspiken slagits av och nästan hela tvärsnittsarean var blöt efter ytterligare några minuter. Skärsläckaren hade en mycket snabb penetreringstid, men sprutade istället mycket vatten rakt igenom torven, vilket medförde att stora mängder vatten passerade genom torven utan att väta en stor yta eller volym. Dimspiken hade en mycket längre penetreringstid, i gengäld så sköts inte vattnet rakt igenom torven utan spred ut sig och vätte en större yta. Båda verktygen har sina för- och nackdelar. Vilket verktyg som är bäst är väldigt situationsberoende. Skärsläckaren har bland annat snabbare penetreringstid och möjliggör fler snabba ingrepp, medan dimspiken täcker en större area per angreppspunkt och är lättare och säkrare att hantera. / Wildfires are a major problem both locally, regionally and globally. They destroy large values, emit large quantities of carbon into the atmosphere and are very resource intensive to fight. Smoldering fires can continue under the ground surface long after the flaming fire above ground is put out. Smoldering fires burn much slower than the flaming fires, but in turn they are harder to discover and require different means to fight. Peat fire is one type of smoldering fire that can be found in wildfires. It is a smoldering fire that occur in peatlands exposed to drought. The fire slowly eats its way through the peat and can go deep into the ground. Difficulty locating them and getting enough water into the deeper peat layers makes them difficult to extinguish. Today, fognails are often used to extinguish smoldering fires in the ground. The cutting extinguisher is another tool that has been used to fight smoldering fires in the ground in some cases. This bachelor thesis aims to provide a better understanding of the function and efficiency of the two tools in extinguishing peat fires. To do this, two tests have been carried out on the fire department’s training field in Luleå, one with a fognail and one with a cutting extinguisher. A test stand was constructed with an internal cross-sectional area of ​​80×80 cm and a height of 1.1 m. It was then filled with peat which was lightly packed until the peat layer was 1 m thick. What was investigated was the tools’ penetration time for the water to reach 1 m down into the peat and the size of the water spread over the cross-sectional area at the depth of 1 m. Both tools had similar flows (56 l/min for the cutter extinguisher and 58 l/min for the fognail) so the differences arose in how that water was used, not the amount of water. The cutting extinguisher broke through in about 1 second and formed an exit hole of about 1 dm2 with additional wetness of a few centimeters around for a total wet area of ​​about 2 dm2. The test was terminated after 30 seconds when no change could be seen in the size of the output hole or the wet area from after the first few seconds. The water sprayed right through the peat. The water from the fognail got through after 26 seconds and the wet area grew continuously. No exit hole was formed in this case. When the fognail was turned off after 1 minute and 45 seconds, about 32 dm2 had become wet, which corresponds to about half the cross-sectional area of the test stand. However, spreading continued despite the fognail being turned off and almost the entire cross-sectional area was wet after a few more minutes. The cutting extinguisher had a very fast penetration time, but as a result it sprayed a lot of water right through the peat without wetting a large area or volume. The fognail had a much longer penetration time, but in return, the water was not shot straight through the peat, but spread out and wet a larger surface. Both tools have their advantages and disadvantages. Which tool is the best depends a lot on the situation. The cutting extinguisher has, among other things, a faster penetration time and allows for more rapid interventions, while the fog nail covers a larger area per attack point and is easier and safer to handle.

The phenomenon of gas entrainment, as a result of impinging liquid jets, was experimentally investigated. The purpose of these investigations was to create a solid experimental database necessary for the development and validation of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) codes. In this work, various experimental setups were built to allow employing various imaging measurement techniques with high spatial and temporal resolution. High-speed imaging was applied for characterizing the flow structure that develops under the free surface. It was found that gas entrainment takes place as soon as the jet impact velocity overcomes the value of 1.2 m/s. The bubble plume, formed as a result of impingement, consists of two distinct regions: an inner region with high turbulence and fine freely dispersed bubbles and an outer region, where larger bubbles move towards the free surface. Two mechanisms are responsible for the occurrence of gas entrainment. High-speed camera observations were validated by means of ultrafast x-ray computed tomography, an innovative non-intrusive measurement technique. Also, quantitative information regarding the bubble plume was acquired from the high-speed observations, in terms of: penetration depth, width and spreading angle of the bubble plume. Measurements, based on two wire-mesh sensors, were performed to assess the gas entrainment rate. In these measurements, void fraction distributions and gas velocities were quantified. The entrainment rate was calculated as an integral over the entrained volumetric gas fraction. It was found to be a function of the jet velocity and length. Results were validated using dual-plane x-ray computed tomography. Results were in agreement with the ones obtained from the wire-mesh sensors and approximately four to six times smaller than predictions found in related publications. Instantaneous as well as time-averaged velocity fields of the continuous phase were gained by means of particle image velocimetry (PIV). Axial time-averaged velocities followed a power law profile, typical for fully developed flow conditions. Two recirculating vortices were found in the flow: one occurs as a result of the water adhering to the lateral wall of the tank and the flow being confined by the bottom wall, while the second one is generated in the wake of rising bubbles. Bubble entrainment was found to reduce liquid phase mean velocities and to enhance fluctuations in the streamwise direction. This is reflected in the distribution of the turbulence kinetic energy. Last but not least, several examples of comparisons between experimental data and CFD results stand to demonstrate the importance of the experimental observations gathered in the frame of this work. It is shown that the experimental data provides a good basis not only for qualitative comparisons, but also for quantitative correlations.

Die Protonentherapie von Aderhautmelanomen wird vor allem für die Behandlung von Tumoren nahe kritischer Strukturen (Sehnerv) und bei großen Tumoren angewandt. Dabei ist die begrenzte Reichweite der Protonen vorteilhaft, die scharf begrenzte Dosisfelder im Auge ermöglicht, und das an den Tumor grenzende gesunde Gewebe bestmöglich schont. Daher erfolgt die Positionierung der Patienten und der Strahlenfelder in der Augentumortherapie, wie auch die regelmäßigen Konstanzprüfungen, mit einer Reichweitengenauigkeit in Wasser von 0,1 mm. Mit einem Multi-Leaf Faraday Cup (MLFC) kann die Reichweite der Protonen in kurzer Zeit sehr genau gemessen werden. Dabei misst der MLFC die differentielle Fluenz der Protonenstrahlen, also das Reichweitenprofil. Er besteht aus einem Stapel Folien, abwechselnd leitend und isolierend. Eindringende Protonen deponieren eine zusätzliche Ladung in der Folie in der sie stoppen. Durch eine gleichzeitige Strommessung an allen Folien misst der MLFC relativ schnell die Reichweite der Protonen. Aufgabe dieser Arbeit ist es, einen MLFC entsprechend den Anforderungen der Augentumortherapie zu entwickeln, aufzubauen und mögliche Anwendungspotentiale zu untersuchen. Dafür wurden Monte-Carlo-Rechnungen mit MCNPX 2.6 und SRIM durchgeführt, verschiedene Folienstapel an Luft und im Vakuum untersucht, verschiedene Messelektroniken zur gleichzeitigen Messung von Strömen im pA-Bereich in vielen Kanälen getestet, ein Absorbersystem für einen variablen Messbereich von 30 MeV bis 70 MeV aufgebaut und die entsprechende Mess- und Steuersoftware in LabVIEW 2011 entwickelt. Es wurde die Genauigkeit der Reichweitenmessungen untersucht und gezeigt, dass der MLFC durch seine Mobilität eine schnelle Energiebestimmung an unterschiedlichen Experimentierplätzen erlaubt. In der Therapie ist neben der einfachen Bestimmung der maximalen Reichweite der Protonen auch die regelmäßige Kontrolle der Modulation der ausgedehnten Bragg-Kurven möglich. / Proton therapy of uveal melanomas is primarily used for the treatment of tumors near critical structures (optic nerve) and in large tumors. The great advantage of protons is their sharply limited range in tissue, which leads to sharp defined dose fields in the eye and the dose absorbed by the healthy tissue around the tumor can be reduced. Therefore, the positioning of the patient and the radiation fields, as well as the regular control measurements in the eye tumor therapy requires an accuracy of 0.1 mm in water. A Multi-Leaf Faraday Cup (MLFC) gives the opportunity to measure the proton range relatively fast and accurate. The MLFC measures the differential fluence, which means the range profile of the proton beam. It consists of a stack of sheets, alternating conductive and insulating, and the penetrating protons bring their additional charge into the sheet in which they stop. By measuring the corresponding current in each conducting sheet at the same time, the MLFC can quickly measure the range of the protons. The task of this work is to develop a MLFC with respect to the requirements of the eye tumor therapy and to explore possible application potentials. Therefore, Monte Carlo calculations with MCNPX 2.6 and SRIM were conducted, various foil stacks were studied in air and in vacuum, different measurement electronics for measuring currents in the pA range in many channels simultaneously were tested, a system of degraders for a variable measuring range from 30 MeV to 70 MeV was developed and the corresponding measurement and control software was written in LabVIEW 2011. The accuracy of the range measurements was examined and it was shown that a quick energy measurement at different target stations can be made by the MLFC due to its mobility. In therapy, in addition to the determination of the maximum range of the proton beam, the regular monitoring of the modulation of the extended Bragg-curves is in principle possible.

No description available.

Zur Aufklärung der lokalen Magnetisierungs- und magnetischen Streufeldstruktur in ferromagnetischen und supraleitenden Materialien wurden magnetkraftmikroskopische (Magnetkraftmikroskopie-MFM) Untersuchungen durchgeführt und quantitativ ausgewertet. Für eine solch quantitative Auswertung muss der Einfluß der verwendeten MFM-Spitzen auf das MFM-Bild bestimmt und in geeigneter Weise subtrahiert werden. Hierzu wurden Spitzenkalibrierungsroutinen und ein Verfahren zur Entfaltung der gemessenen MFM-Daten implementiert, das auf der Wiener Dekonvolution basiert. Mit Hilfe dieser Prozedur können sowohl die räumliche Ausdehnung als auch die Größe der Streufelder direkt aus gemessenen MFM-Bildern bestimmt werden. Gezeigt wurde diese Anwendung für die Durchmesserbestimmung von Blasendomänen in einer (Co/Pd)-Multilage und für die Bestimmung der temperaturabhängigen magnetischen Eindringtiefe in einem supraleitendem BaFe2(As0.24P0.76)2 Einkristall. Desweiteren konnte durch die Kombination von mikromagnetischen Rechnungen und der quantitativen MFM-Datenanalyse die Existenz einer dreidimensionalen Vortex-Struktur am Ende von Co48Fe52-Nanodrähten nachgewiesen werden. Damit ist es gelungen die Tiefensensitivität der Magnetkraftmikroskopie erfolgreich in die Rekonstruktion der vermessenen Magnetisierungsstruktur einzubeziehen.

Zur Aufklärung der lokalen Magnetisierungs- und magnetischen Streufeldstruktur in ferromagnetischen und supraleitenden Materialien wurden magnetkraftmikroskopische (Magnetkraftmikroskopie-MFM) Untersuchungen durchgeführt und quantitativ ausgewertet. Für eine solch quantitative Auswertung muss der Einfluß der verwendeten MFM-Spitzen auf das MFM-Bild bestimmt und in geeigneter Weise subtrahiert werden. Hierzu wurden Spitzenkalibrierungsroutinen und ein Verfahren zur Entfaltung der gemessenen MFM-Daten implementiert, das auf der Wiener Dekonvolution basiert. Mit Hilfe dieser Prozedur können sowohl die räumliche Ausdehnung als auch die Größe der Streufelder direkt aus gemessenen MFM-Bildern bestimmt werden. Gezeigt wurde diese Anwendung für die Durchmesserbestimmung von Blasendomänen in einer (Co/Pd)-Multilage und für die Bestimmung der temperaturabhängigen magnetischen Eindringtiefe in einem supraleitendem BaFe2(As0.24P0.76)2 Einkristall. Desweiteren konnte durch die Kombination von mikromagnetischen Rechnungen und der quantitativen MFM-Datenanalyse die Existenz einer dreidimensionalen Vortex-Struktur am Ende von Co48Fe52-Nanodrähten nachgewiesen werden. Damit ist es gelungen die Tiefensensitivität der Magnetkraftmikroskopie erfolgreich in die Rekonstruktion der vermessenen Magnetisierungsstruktur einzubeziehen.:Introduction 6 1 Contrast formation in Magnetic Force Microscopy (MFM) 9 1.1 Type of interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.1.1 Relevant interaction forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.1.2 Magnetic interaction mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1.2 Basic magnetostatics of the tip-sample system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1.2.1 General magnetostatic expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1.2.2 Description of the tip sample system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 1.2.3 Magnetostatics in Fourier space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 2 Instrumentation 20 2.1 Scanning Force Microscopy (SFM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 2.1.1 Measurement principle and operation modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 2.1.2 Dynamic mode SFM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2.2 Lift mode MFM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 2.3 Non-contact MFM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 2.4 Vibrating Sample Magnetometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 3 Quantitative Magnetic Force Microscopy 28 3.1 The challenge of MFM image inversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 3.1.1 Description of the problem and state of the art . . . . . . . . . . . 28 3.1.2 The point probe approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 3.1.3 The transfer function approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 3.2 Tip calibration: Adapted Wiener deconvolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 3.2.1 Details of the procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 3.2.2 Evaluation of possible errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 3.3 Noise measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 3.4 MFM probes and their specific characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 3.5 Calibration samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 3.6 Detection of tip-sample modification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 4 Quantitative MFM with iron filled carbon nanotube sensors (Fe-CNT) 56 4.1 The monopole character of Fe-CNT sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 4.1.1 Calibration within the point probe approximation . . . . . . . . . . 57 4.1.2 Calibration results and discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 4.1.3 Quantitative MFM on a [Co/Pt]/Co/Ru multilayer . . . . . . . . . 62 4.2 Inplane sensitive MFM with Fe-CNT sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 4.2.1 Bimodal MFM technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 4.2.2 Comparison between calculated and measured in-plane contrast . . 66 5 Quantification of magnetic nanoobjects in MFM measurements 70 5.1 Bubble domains in a [Co/Pd]80 multilayer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 5.1.1 Micromagnetic model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 5.1.2 MFM image simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 5.1.3 Results and discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 5.2 Quantitative assessment of the magnetic penetration depth in superconductors 78 5.2.1 Comparison of methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 5.2.2 Experimental determination of the temperature dependent penetration depth in a BaFe2(As0:24P0:76)2 single crystal . . . . . . . . . . . 83 6 Magnetization studies of CoFe nanowire arrays on a local and global scale 87 6.1 Revisiting the estimation of demagnetizing fields in magnetic nanowire arrays 88 6.1.1 Available approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 6.1.2 Calculation of demagnetizing fields in nanowire arrays . . . . . . . . 91 6.2 Micromagnetic Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 6.3 Combination of demagnetizing field calculations and micromagnetic simulation100 6.4 Experimental details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 6.5 Global hysteresis measurements of CoFe nanowire arrays with varying length 104 6.6 Local magnetic characterization of a CoFe nanowire array by quantitative MFM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 6.6.1 Magnetic structure of individual nanowires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 6.6.2 Magnetization reversal of the nanowire array . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 6.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Conclusions and Outlook 119 Bibliography 121 Acknowledgements 135

In recent years we may observe a growth in construction of passive houses and low energy houses using lightweight constructions such as modern wooden houses. It is assumed that wooden houses keep overheating more comparing to brick houses during summer period. Due to the lack of research in this field the paper investigates the influence of internal thermal storage mass in passive houses constructions on their summer thermal stability under the Czech climatic conditions. Only sensible heat accumulation without a usage of phase change materials is examined. Differences between wooden houses comparing to brick-built houses are emphasized. Objects of research are mostly residential passive houses in low energy building standards. However, the results of research might be applied to different types of buildings as well. The first section outlines theoretical fundamentals. For the research itself various scientific research methods were used, such as basic mathematical calculations, experimental temperature measurement of two buildings (detached house in Dubňany and in Moravany) and numerical simulations. Own tribute to the research was first of all discussion on the topic of thermal accumulation and structures heat capacity calculation. Experimental measurements outlined conclusive evidence about the importance of internal thermal storage mass in respect of interior summer overheating. The research confirmed that the highest interior temperature reached is mostly influenced by solar gains through unshaded windows. However, the influence of internal thermal storage mass is not remote. If we compare standard timber-framed wooden house to the hole ceramic bricks-built house, the wooden house will overheat by 0,5°C more during a standard day. Wider spread in the maximum temperature reached was measured for lightweight consturctions wooden houses without any internal thermal storage mass. Therefore, such structures should have an additional layer of thermal storage mass.