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Hard clams, Mercenaria mercenaria, are slow-moving organisms that are heavily preyed upon by both blue crabs and knobbed whelks in coastal Georgia. Hard clams are unable to escape from these predators, and when found, are commonly injured and/or consumed. Thus, their best survival strategy is to avoid their predators. In this study, we compared changes in clam behavior when exposed to blue crab and knobbed whelk predators. Clams reduced their feeding time when exposed to crabs and whelks, exudates from these predators, and to injured conspecifics. In a field experiment, we compared clam survival when caged predators where near clam beds vs. controls with empty cages. Clam survival was significantly higher when caged crabs or whelks were near, suggesting that clams detected these predators, reduced their feeding time, and were less apparent to ambient consumers. In lab behavioral assays, clams were less responsive to blue crabs in turbulent flows, and in the field, turbulence reduced the distance clams reacted to blue crabs. Previous studies have shown that blue crabs turbulence also diminishes blue crab foraging efficiency, and we conducted a field experiment to determine how turbulence affected clam-crab interactions. Our results suggest that predation intensity is greatest at intermediate turbulence levels, and lowest in flows with low and high turbulence levels. We attribute this pattern of predation intensity to differential effects of turbulence on the sensory abilities of crabs and clams. That is, in low turbulent flows, clams have a sensory advantage over crabs, and initiate avoidance behaviors before they are detected. However, as turbulence increases, clam perception diminishes faster than crabs, switching the sensory advantage to crabs, and making clams more vulnerable to consumers. In highly turbulent flows, crab perception declines at a rate faster than clams, and the sensory advantage returns to clams.

Frogs, toads, and salamanders are well known for harboring an array of distasteful (and poisonous) secondary metabolites, presumably as antipredator defenses; yet few experiments have rigorously demonstrated the efficacy of amphibian chemical defenses against ecologically relevant consumers. For example, despite an absence of rigorous statistical evidence showing their distastefulness to predators, eastern newts (Notophthalmus viridescens (Rafinesque))--a common salamander in lentic North American habitats--are assumed to tolerate diverse predator assemblages because newts secrete tetrodotoxin (TTX), a neurotoxin. Here we combine laboratory and field-based ecology with bioassay-guided separation of chemical extracts to show that eastern newts--although chemically protected against ecologically important consumers in lentic systems--nonetheless suffer substantial predation when tethered in the field. When offered newts with alternative prey (paedomorphic Ambystoma talpoideum), red swamp crayfish (Procambarus clarkii) and largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) were 9-10x as likely to feed on A. talpoideum as newts. Additionally, juvenile bluegill (Lepomis machrochirus) were 70% less likely to consume newt eggs compared to control food pellets. We also show that different newt tissues were differentially palatable to predatory fish. All bluegill tested consumed a palatable control food, but only 20% consumed dorsal skin, only 35% ate ventral skin, but 75% fed on newt viscera, suggesting that deterrent metabolites are concentrated in the skin. Bioassay-guided fractionation revealed that crude and water-soluble newt chemical extracts inhibited bluegill feeding, definitively establishing the chemical nature of newt antipredator defenses, although we were unsuccessful at isolating the chemical compounds responsible for unpalatability. Yet, deterrent activity in the polar but not the lipophilic chemical fraction and bioassay results demonstrating that naıve predators rapidly learn to avoid natural concentrations of TTX support the possible role of TTX in suppressing predation on newts. However, when tethered in the field, newt mortality was 55% higher in ponds with predatory fishes than in ponds lacking fishes (62% vs. 40% respectively), indicating the possible existence of other predators that are resistant to (or tolerant of) newt chemical defenses. Together, these results stress the importance of rigorous, ecologically relevant, and hypothesis-driven experimentation to better understand the complexity of chemically- mediated predator-prey interactions, even for well-studied species like N. viridescens.

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Made available in DSpace on 2015-03-26T13:30:41Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 texto completo.pdf: 1742267 bytes, checksum: ae0589b45125685c7e5b788f9a1372ad (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-07-12 / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / O cafeeiro apresenta perdas econômicas devido a pragas e doenças. Entre as pragas, os ácaros fitófagos merecem atenção devido à redução da área fotossintética. Além dos danos dos ácaros, alguns patógenos também atacam plantas de café como a ferrugem-do-cafeeiro, Hemileia vastatrix (Uredinales). Este patógeno causa perdas de produtividade de 30% em algumas variedades de Coffea arabica. Ácaros da família Phytoseiidae normalmente controlam populações de ácaros fitófagos e podem desenvolver-se e reproduzirem usando diversas fontes alimentares, além dos ácaros presa. Dentro da família Phytoseiidae, que é composto por ácaros carnívoros e os que se alimentam de pólen, em levantamentos foi encontrado a espécie Ricoseius loxocheles (De Leon) (Acari: Phytoseiidae) sobre áreas de necrose causada pela ferrugem do cafeeiro, durante sua fase reprodutiva. Existem poucas informações sobre o seu desenvolvimento, parâmetros biológicos e hábitos alimentares. Avaliou-se a taxonomia, desenvolvimento, parâmetros de sobrevivência e reprodução de R. loxocheles alimentando-se de urediosporos da ferrugem do cafeeiro e sua capacidade predatória e sucesso reprodutivo sobre Oligonychus ilicis (McGregor, 1971). Uredosporos da ferrugem-do-cafeeiro apoiaram a sobrevivência, desenvolvimento e reprodução do ácaro fitoseídeo estudado e este não foi capaz de predar O. ilicis. A sobrevivência e oviposição de R. loxocheles só foi observada quando este ácaro alimentou-se de ferrugem. Em arenas sem o fungo esses parâmetros foram iguais as arenas sem alimento. A reprodução tem a exigência nutricional mais elevada do que o desenvolvimento. R. loxocheles alimentados com ferrugem obteve parâmetros reprodutivos mais elevados do que outros fitoseídeos alimentados em outros fungos, alguns ácaros ou pólen. Conclui-se que este ácaro é um fitoseídeo generalista e são necessários mais estudos para medir a capacidade de alimentarem-se em outras fontes alimentares, tais como ácaros fitófagos pragas do cafeeiro. É possível que R. loxocheles tenha um papel no controle da ferrugem do cafeeiro, uma vez que se alimenta de uma grande quantidade de uredosporos da ferrugem. / Coffee crops have economic losses due pests and diseases. Among them, the phytophagous mites deserve attention due to the reducing photosynthetic area caused on the leaves. Besides of mite damages, some pathogens also attack coffee plants, as the coffee rust fungus, Hemileia vastatrix (Uredinales). This pathogen cause yield losses around 30% in some varieties of Coffea arabica. Predatory mites from the Phytoseiidae family normally control phytophagous mites and can develop and reproduce using various alternative food sources than their primary prey, tetranychid mites. Within the Phytoseiidae family that is composed by carnivorous and pollen-feeding mites, we surveyed in the field the species Ricoseius loxocheles (De Leon) (Acari: Phytoseiidae) on the necrosis area caused by coffee rust during its reproductive phase. Searching in the literature showed that there is little information related to this mite development, biological parameters and feeding habits. So, this study was carried out to assess the taxonomy, development, survivorship and reproduction parameters of R. loxocheles feeding on coffee rust fungus, its predation capacity on Oligonychus ilicis (McGregor, 1971) and its reproductive success. Coffee rust supported the survival, development and reproduction of the phytoseiid mite and that it was not able to feed on different stages of O. ilicis. Survival and oviposition of R. loxocheles was only observed when this mite was in arenas with fungi. In arenas without fungi these parameters were equal as arenas without food. It is known that reproduction has a higher nutritional requirement than development. The fertility of R. loxocheles fed on coffee rust is highest that the other phytoseiid fed in others fungi or some mites or pollen. We suggest that this mite is a phytoseiid generalist and it is necessary more studies to measure the ability of this mite specie to feed on other food sources, such as herbivore mites pests of coffee crops. It is possible that R. loxocheles has a role in the control of coffee rust since it feeds on a large amount of rust uredospore.

Predators often have strong top-down effects on ecosystems and are considered a priority for conservation and management. Predator activity can influence prey distribution, abundance, and foraging behaviors and are likely to influence habitat by impacting ecological and environmental characteristics as well as presence of competitor species. There are knowledge gaps of the functional diversity of fish assemblages, non-consumptive predator effects, and environmental effects on fish assemblages. With this study, effects of top marine predators, such as sharks and great barracuda, on diversity and abundance of prey communities were examined in putative low (north side of South Bimini = lagoon) and high-risk (south side of South Bimini = flat) areas around South Bimini, The Bahamas. Baited remote underwater video surveys (BRUVs) deployed in the nearshore habitat captured abundance and potential predator-prey interactions. Predator and prey abundances at each site were compared to determine potential risk affect within high and low risk environments. A general baseline of predator and prey species was established throughout six months of observation (January- June 2018). Results showed a difference in prey communities between high and low risk habitats. Teleost abundance was highest on the south side of South Bimini. There were no differences in flight behavior of prey from predator (sharks vs barracuda). Longitude, depth, temperature, salinity, and dissolved oxygen were significantly linked to biotic assemblages. The identification of significant factors influencing predator-prey interaction is important in understanding community composition and for future implementation of conservation and management practices pertaining to nearby mangrove and seagrass habitats.

Predators can have large effects on prey populations and on the structure and function of communities. In addition to direct consumption of prey, predators often cause prey to alter their foraging behavior, habitat selection, and morphology. These non-lethal effects of predators can propagate to multiple trophic levels and often exert equal or larger effects upon communities than those of direct consumption. For non-lethal predatory effects to occur, prey must detect and respond to predation risk. While the importance of information transfer in this process has been realized, few studies explore how prey responses are influenced by predator characteristics and environmental conditions that influence the transmission of cues indicative of predation risk. In this dissertation I investigate factors that influence how a single prey species evaluates and responds to predation risk. Here, I examined: 1) the type and nature of cues prey use to evaluate predator risk; 2) how predator identity, predator diet, and the relative risk of predators influence prey response to predation risk; 3) how hydrodynamic conditions influence the delivery of predator cues; 4) how biogeographic trends in predator distribution influence prey response to predation risk; and 5) how genetic structure might vary according to prey geographic location and habitat. To address these questions, I used a common intertidal model system consisting of the rocky intertidal whelk Nucella lapillus (Linnaeus, 1758) and a suite of its predators, the native rock crab Cancer irroratus (Say, 1817), Jonah crab Cancer borealis (Stimpson, 1859), and the invasive green crab Carcinus maenas (Linnaeus, 1758). Nucella use chemical cues emanating from their most common predator (Carcinus maenas) and crushed conspecifics to evaluate predation risk. Nucella from different habitats experience different levels of predation risk, and Nucella from habitats with high levels of predation had larger antipredatory responses to predator risk cues than Nucella that experienced less predation. These chemical cues indicative of predation risk are influenced by hydrodynamic conditions, and Nucella have the strongest anti-predatory response in flow velocities of u= ~4- 8 cm s^-1. Furthermore, Nucella from geographic regions where green crabs are historically absent did not elicit anti-predatory responses, while Nucella from regions where green crabs are common frequently responded. Findings from my dissertation research demonstrate that prey detection and response to predation risk is highly dependent upon predator identity, predator diet, environmental forces, and biogeographic patterns in predator and prey distributions.

Nous avons étudié les mécanismes d’interaction entre le piège du fourmilion, une dépression conique dans le sable, et ses proies. Nous avons identifié un spectre optimal de proies, pesant environ 2 à 3 mg, par une expérience d’écologie comportementale sur des fourmis. Les proies plus petites et plus grosses sont moins capturées, pour des raisons différentes. Nous avons également découvert que la compacité du milieu granulaire où les fourmilions construisent influence la probabilité de capture. Le piège garde donc en mémoire l’état du milieu, avec des conséquences sur l’alimentation du prédateur. / We studied the interactions between an antlion pit, a conical depression in sand, and its prey. We identified an optimal range of prey size with a behavioural ecology experiment with ants. Prey that are lighter or heavier are less captured, for different causes, than prey of around 2 and 3 mg. We also found that the compaction of the granular medium where antlion built impacts on the probability of capture of prey. The pit so has a memory of the initial state of the immediate soil environment, with consequences for the predator success.

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