The law of the World Trade Organization (WTO) both explicitly and implicitly requires that a determination of causation be made at a number of points. In several of the WTO covered agreements, an important part of making a determination about causation involves separating those factors that are causative from those that are immaterial to the outcome in question (this process of separation is known as a 'non-attribution analysis'). This thesis argues that there are six parts of the law of the WTO that require, either explicitly or implicitly, that a causation and non-attribution analysis be undertaken. These are: (1) Safeguard Measures (Articles 2.1 and 4.2(a) and (b) of the Agreement on Safeguards ); (2) Anti-Dumping measures (Articles 3.1 and 3.5 of the Anti-Dumping Agreement ); (3) Countervailing Duties (Article 15.5 of the Subsidies and Countervailing Measures Agreement (SCM Agreement)); (4) Serious prejudice (Articles 5(c) and 6.3 of the SCM Agreement); (5) the relationship between a measure and its policy objective (Article XX of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade and Article XIV of the General Agreement on Trade in Services ); and (6) the relationship between a responding Member's failure to comply with a DSB ruling and the complainant Member's level of nullification and impairment (Articles 22.6 of the Understanding on Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disputes and 4.10 of the SCM Agreement). This thesis will first examine the current approach in the jurisprudence to analysing causation and non-attribution in these parts of the law of the WTO. To that end, it will suggest that there is a trend in the current jurisprudence to attempt to make an a priori inference about the effects of a cause from the nature of the cause itself. This thesis will suggest that this approach reflects a misconception of causation, and it will propose an alternative, three-part methodology for interrogating causation based on the use of econometric analysis, which has been developed from guidance given by the Appellate Body in US-Wheat Gluten.

abstract: Anti-atheist prejudice is cross-culturally prevalent and marked by intuitive distrust. However, recent research suggests that, when social perceivers know additional relevant information about others (i.e., their reproductive strategies), this information overrides religious information and nonreligious targets are trusted as much as religious targets. That is, perceivers seem to use religious information as a cue to a specific set of behavioral traits, but prioritize direct information about these traits when available. Here, I use this framework to explore the possibility that atheists are viewed positively in certain circumstances. First, atheists might be viewed positively for certain purposes because of their perceived reproductive strategies, even while being trusted less. Second, atheists who are family-oriented do not sacrifice trust, but may still be viewed positively for other traits (i.e., open-mindedness, scientific thinking). Third, given the constraints religion often imposes on behavior, atheists might be trusted more in situations where these constraints interfere with religious people’s inclination to cooperate. I tested these hypotheses using fictitious social media profiles to examine social perception. The study had a 3 (Target Religion: Religious, Nonreligious, or Atheist) × 3 (Target Reproductive Strategy: No Information, Committed, Uncommitted) experimental design (N = 550). Contrary to my predictions, participants did not rate atheists and nonreligious targets as “fast” compared to religious targets. Consistent with predictions, however, atheists and nonreligious individuals were rated significantly higher on perceived open-mindedness and scientific thinking. Finally, atheist and nonreligious targets were trusted more in two of the three trust domains: trust with scientific findings that contradict their worldview and trust with a secret about a friend’s abortion. Further analyses compared patterns of responding for religious and nonreligious individuals, finding evidence for ingroup bias in most perceptions, but not all. Results suggest that perceptions of atheists are complex, but that atheists may, at least sometimes, be viewed favorably. Finally, these results point to the importance of reproductive strategy as a dimension of social perception, as this variable had a clear effect, independent of target religion, on the hypothesized perceptions. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Psychology 2018

O presente trabalho está baseado em analisar os Boletins de Ocorrência e os relatos das pessoas que apresentaram queixas na 2ª Delegacia de Polícia de Repressão aos Crimes Raciais e de Delitos de Intolerâncias (DECRADI). A DECRADI é especializada em crimes de ódio e intolerância, motivados pelo preconceito contra grupos específicos caracterizados por convicções ideológicas, religiosas, raciais, culturais, étnicas e esportivas, visando à exclusão social. Em um primeiro momento, o trabalho apresenta uma recuperação dos conceitos que contribuem para a compreensão das manifestações de racismo, preconceito e discriminação. Em um segundo momento, o trabalho apresenta o contexto no qual as leis antirracistas foram criadas, quais limitações as compõem e quais perspectivas resultam do processo de implementação de cada uma delas na esfera do Sistema de Justiça Criminal. Em um terceiro momento, a pesquisa analisa o relato de pessoas que compareceram à DECRADI para registrar uma queixa de crime racial. Assim, este trabalho busca apresentar um diagnóstico das nuances dos conflitos raciais que ocorrem em novos contextos sociais, marcados por instrumentos políticos, sócio-culturais e jurídicos de combate ao racismo, ao preconceito e à discriminação. / The present work is based on analyzing the complaints and the testimony of the people who presented complaints in the 2ª Delegacia de Polícia de Repressão aos Crimes Raciais e de Delitos de Intolerâncias (DECRADI/SP). DECRADI is specialized in hate crimes and intolerance, motivated by prejudice against specific groups characterized by ideological, religious, racial, cultural and ethnic convictions, aiming at social exclusion. At first, the work presents a recovery of the concepts that contribute to understand the manifestations of racism, prejudice and discrimination. Secondly, this work presents the context in which anti-racists laws were created, what limitations they make, and which perspectives result from the process of implementing each one in the sphere of the Criminal Justice System. In a third moment, the research analyzes the testimony of people who went to DECRADI to make a racial offense complaint. Thus, this paper seeks to present a diagnosis of the nuances of racial conflicts that occur in new social contexts, characterized by the use of political, socio-cultural and legal instruments to combat racism, prejudice and discrimination.

A complexidade da sexualidade humana, bem como a admissão da existência de uma diversidade sexual foram (e ainda são) rechaçadas na escola, ocasionando não raro a discriminação e a exclusão de alunos/as que não se enquadram nos padrões heterossexistas prestigiados socialmente. Por essa razão, nesta pesquisa, investigam-se as representações que professores/as do Ensino Médio de duas escolas públicas paulistanas têm sobre homossexualidade e diversidade sexual no cotidiano escolar, buscando-se um maior aprofundamento teórico e interpretativo. Para chegar ao objetivo proposto, a pesquisa de campo foi realizada com base em um questionário semiestruturado, com questões abertas e fechadas. Como referencial teórico, utilizaram-se autores da área dos Estudos Culturais (teoria queer) e dos teóricos da Representação Social. Os dados quantitativos da pesquisa foram apresentados em forma de gráfico comparativo (entre as duas escolas), e os dados qualitativos foram divididos em três blocos de interpretação (representações, formação de professores e diversidade sexual na escola) e analisados em três categorias de análise, com base nas falas dos/as professores/as: 1) representações da homossexualidade sob viés de preconceito evidente; 2) representações da homossexualidade sob viés de preconceito latente; 3) representações da homossexualidade na perspectiva democrática e inclusiva. Os resultados obtidos são de grande relevância para a Educação Sexual, bem como para a cultura do respeito à diversidade, pois permitem detectar as diferentes formas com que o preconceito a cidadãos não heterossexuais instalam-se na escola. Além disso, os resultados evidenciam que a conexão entre discriminação e homossexualidade funda-se em uma questão cultural, enraizada em dogmas, crenças e representações construídas socialmente para conservar a hegemonia da heterossexualidade e, por conseguinte, subalternizar e inferiorizar as orientações sexuais consideradas não-padrão. / The complexity of human sexuality, as well as the admission of the existence of sexual diversity were (and still are) rejected by the school, often leading to discrimination and exclusion of students that do not fit in socially prestigious heterosexist standards. Therefore, in this research are investigated the representations that teachers of two public paulistana\'s high schools have about homosexuality and sexual diversity in school life, seeking a deeper theoretical and interpretive approach. To reach the objective, the field research was conducted based on a semi-structured questionnaire with open and closed questions. The theoretical authors used were from Cultural Studies field (queer theory) and the theory of Social Representation. Quantitative data from the survey were presented in a comparative graph form (between the two schools), and qualitative data were divided into three blocks of interpretation (representation, teachers formation and sexual diversity in school) and analyzed in three categories of analysis, based on the speech of the teacher: 1) representations of homosexuality under the bias of evident prejudice, 2) representations of homosexuality under latent prejudice bias, 3) representations of homosexuality in a democratic and inclusive perspective. The results are of great relevance to sexual education and to the culture of respect for diversity, it can detect the different ways that prejudice against non-heterosexual citizens is established in school. Furthermore, the results show that the connection between discrimination and homosexuality is based on a cultural issue, rooted in dogmas, beliefs and representations socially constructed to preserve the hegemony of heterosexuality and consequently to undervalue and to degrade sexual orientations considered nonstandard.

O debate sobre a inclusão escolar se fortaleceu no Brasil e no mundo em meados da década de 1990. Segundo o Censo Escolar da Educação Básica de 2009, 61% das matrículas na educação especial foram realizadas em classes comuns de escolas regulares ou na educação de jovens e adultos, contra 39% de matrículas em escolas especializadas e classes especiais. Com isto, há, hoje, mais alunos matriculados em classes regulares do que em segregadas. A ausência de concordância em estudos dos últimos anos sobre o tema da inclusão escolar, além de expressar as contradições da própria sociedade, revela a importância de novas pesquisas para que, em conjunto, apontem os caminhos a serem seguidos. Neste sentido, esta pesquisa, que consiste em um estudo de caso, tem como objetivo geral: compreender o cotidiano escolar de um aluno com deficiência visual (DV) que frequenta classe regular, assim como preconceitos e atitudes em relação a ele dentro da escola. O referencial teórico adotado foi a teoria crítica da sociedade. Os dados foram coletados em uma escola regular particular de uma cidade de médio porte do interior paulista. Foram realizadas observações em sala e no recreio, entrevista com uma aluna com DV, entrevistas com professores e coordenação da escola, e aplicação do sociograma em uma sala de aula da 8ª série / 9º ano. As observações e entrevistas foram analisadas de acordo com a técnica de análise de conteúdo: pré-análise, descrição analítica e interpretação inferencial. Cada instrumento foi analisado e interpretado individualmente e, posteriormente, os dados foram integrados para a análise geral. Os dados coletados apontaram que, no cotidiano escolar da aluna com DV, há situações de inclusão e de exclusão. A interação com colegas é satisfatória, embora mais efetiva no recreio do que em sala de aula. Essa boa interação foi confirmada pelo sociograma, pois a aluna com DV apresentou sutil preferência. No entanto, a ausência de adaptações curriculares para a acessibilidade resulta na exclusão do conteúdo, que é passado sinteticamente à aluna, de forma que, embora sua socialização pareça preservada, sua aprendizagem está sendo parcialmente negligenciada. Ela é marginalizada em sala, pois há barreiras à sua incorporação da cultura. A não existência de trabalhos cooperativos na sala e a presença de barreiras à aprendizagem e à participação indicam que a escola tem como foco o desempenho dos alunos normovisuais e uma busca competitiva e pragmática por resultados. Esses dados sugerem a reprodução da ideologia da racionalidade tecnológica. A análise também aponta que essa escola dá maior ênfase à adaptação em detrimento da emancipação de seus alunos, o que pode colaborar para a pseudoformação de todos. O acesso à escola regular para as pessoas com deficiência visual é um ganho na história da pessoa com deficiência. Ainda assim, é preciso que pesquisas e ações voltem-se à educação de qualidade para todos, a fim de que cada vez mais nos aproximemos de uma sociedade verdadeiramente inclusiva e a violência em qualquer forma de manifestação seja reduzida. / The debate about school inclusion strengthened in Brazil and worldwide in the mid 1990s. According to the 2009 School Census of Compulsory Education in Brazil, 61% of the enrollment in special education occurred in mainstream classes in regular schools or in youth and adult education, against 39% of enrollment in special schools and special classes. Therefore, there are more students enrolled in mainstream classes than in segregated ones today. The lack of consensus in studies about inclusive education in the last years not only reveals contradictions within society itself, but also indicates new research needs that could, as a whole, show new paths to be pursued. In this respect, this research was a case study that aimed to understand the everyday academic life of one student with visual impairment (VI) in a mainstream classroom, as well as assess prejudice and attitudes towards her inside the school. The critical theory of society was adopted as a point of reference. Data was collected in a private school in a medium-sized city in São Paulo State. Observations were carried out in class and during recess, one student with VI was interviewed, teachers and the coordinator were also interviewed, and a sociogram was used in a 9th grade class. The observations and interviews were analyzed according to the content analysis technique: pre-analysis, analytical description and inferential interpretation. Each instrument was analyzed and interpreted individually and the whole data set was subsequently integrated for a general assessment. The results showed that, for this students academic everyday life, there are situations of inclusion and exclusion. The interaction with classmates is satisfactory, although it is better during recess than in class. This good interaction was confirmed by the sociogram because the student with VI showed slight preference. Nevertheless, the absence of curriculum adaptation for accessibility leads to content exclusion, which is only briefly taught to the student, in a way that, although her socialization seems to be preserved, her learning has been partially neglected. She is marginalized in class because there are barriers for her culture incorporation. The fact that there isnt cooperative learning in class and there are barriers to learning and participation indicate that the school is focused on the performance of the sighted students and search for competitive and pragmatic results. This suggests the reproduction of the technology rationality ideology. The analysis also indicates that this school emphasizes adaptation to the detriment of the students emancipation, which may contribute to their semi-formation. Access to regular schools for people with VI is a gain in the history of people with disabilities. Still, research and actions need to prioritize quality education for all. This may lead to a truly inclusive society with reduced violence of any kind or nature.

Shakespeare uses metadrama as a rhetorical vehicle for responding to antitheatricalism; realistic drama and staged theatricality therefore coexist in his plays. The cultural context of the early modern era, especially its antitheatrical rhetoric and the predominance of theatricality throughout the structures of its society, illumines the interaction of metadrama and antitheatricality Shakespeare's plays, particularly Troilus and Cressida and King Lear. By failing to consider adequately the unique nature of the emergence of early modern theater and the equally distinct reaction to its popularity, previous scholarship considering antitheatricality has exhibited essentialism and a universalizing tendency similar to that of the antitheatricalists. The paucity of specifically protheatrical response in prose to the immense antitheatrical work of polemicists such as William Prynne and to antitheatrical tracts and publications signals the presence of protheatrical response within the literature of the stage: its plays. Metadramatic critics have noted that metadrama provides a subtle means of establishing a connection between actors and their audience and that it serves as a means of interrogating various deployments of theatrical power and the motives implied by its use. Troilus and Cressida celebrates, interrogates, and reproves the theater, engaging the proponents and detractors of the theater through depictions of Ulysses and Pandarus as effective and ineffective interior directors, respectively. Ulysses's militaristic drive toward victory at all costs demonstrates his affinity to the figure of the stage Machiavel, while his seemingly inexplicable hostility toward Achilles similarly marks his connection to the figure of the Vice. Pandarus's relation to theatricality highlights the negative associations of theater and prostitution apparent in the works of the antitheatricalists. His self-delusory propensity to motivate others to actions to which they are already predisposed mocks and calls into question the assertion that theater exerts motivational power over its audience. Literary critics considering King Lear observe that identity loss underpins the tragic process apparent in the plays' protagonists. Depictions of staged theatrical ability and inability and positive depictions of antitheatrical Puritanism pervade King Lear. The deployment of theatricality in the play both emphasizes its creative and soteriological function and embodies the harmful potential of dramaturgical art.

Research on intergroup contact (Pettigrew & Tropp, 2006) has shown it to be an effective measure of reducing prejudice, and further studies have shown parasocial intergroup contact to be effective as well (Ortiz & Harwood, 2007). This research is incredibly important when studying people with high Social Dominance Orientation (SDO), who tend to favor social hierarchies and disparities between groups. The present study will focus on the interaction of SDO and type of intergroup contact on prejudice. Over the course of a month-long longitudinal study, participants will either be assigned to a face-to-face contact condition, interviewing an immigrant confederate in-person, or to a parasocial contact condition, watching an interview of this confederate on a computer screen. Given past research, both types of contact are predicted to increase favorable attitudes toward immigrants and decrease racism, although face-to-face contact is likely to be most impactful. Low SDO individuals are predicted to maintain low levels of prejudice, while high SDO individuals are predicted to experience a larger difference in racism and attitudes toward immigrants. It is expected that those high in SDO and placed in the face-to-face condition will experience the largest difference in racism and attitudes toward immigrants, compared to the other groups, demonstrating an interaction effect. Implications for intergroup contact and the media will be discussed.

The Westboro Baptist Church and Phelps family are notorious for their signs proclaiming anti-homosexuality epithets such as “God Hates Fag,” and references to Biblical verses to revile homosexuality (e.g., Romans 1:24-27). Although the homonegativity bias that Westboro patrons and many traditional Christians express is often understood as being rooted in religion, I proposed the possibility that religion can be a justification rather than source of homonegativity. That is, although religion typically is seen as the source of prejudice towards LGBT+ people, I argued that this relationship might work in reverse. I examined under which conditions this “reverse” phenomena might occur in both the Pilot Study and follow-up study. My Pilot Study results suggested that there are differences in participants’ level of Religiosity after falsely being told they held LGBT+ prejudices. These differences were moderated by political alignment. Relatively liberal participants were more likely to have higher levels of Religiosity after receiving Biased Feedback compared to those who received Neutral Feedback. In terms of those who were more politically conservative, their level of Religiosity tended to be about the same regardless of which feedback they received. When it came to Biblical Literalism, however, relatively conservative participants had higher levels of literalism when given the Neutral Feedback compared to relatively liberal participants when given the same Feedback. These findings were mostly replicated in the follow-up Main Study. The results from both studies suggest that, under some circumstances, people might use religion to justify their prejudice towards LGBT+, and the strategy they use is affected by their political alignment (liberal or conservative). There could be differences in motivations between people who are more politically conservative and those who are more politically liberal. These potential differences are addressed in the discussion.

Three studies examined prejudice as an explanation for the overrepresentation of Black Africans and the under-representation of native-born Black Americans in Ivy League institutions. I hypothesized admission officers may use Black Africans as a "cover" for their prejudice against Black American natives. The admission of more Black Africans may allow admission officers to express their prejudice toward Black American natives while maintaining an egalitarian image. In Study 1, although the Black African applicant was evaluated as more likable, competent, and had a greater chance of being admitted than the Black American native applicant, differences were only significant when compared with the White American applicant. In Study 2, the Black American native applicant was significantly less likely to be admitted when being directly compared to a Black African applicant (versus a White American applicant). Study 3, tested the boundary effects of Study 2 by exposing participants to an Affirmative Action statement. Similar to Study 2, the target Black American native applicant was significantly less likely to be admitted when in direct comparison with a Black African applicant. In Studies 1 and 3, levels of internal motivation and/or levels of external motivation to respond without prejudice significantly moderated the relationship between ethnicity and decision to admit. Furthermore, findings indicated that the decision to admit the target Black American native versus the competitor was dependent on perceptions of SES. Collectively, these studies offer evidence that the admittance of Black African applicants may provide a cover for discrimination against Black American natives. These results suggest that ethnicity, in addition to race, may affect the educational opportunities of minority group members.

The current study explored how White racial identity influences the relationship between affective reactions to racism and one’s internal or external motivation to respond without prejudice. The first aim was to examine the bivariate relationships between White racial identity ego schemas and affective reactions to racism. The second aim examined the bivariate relationships between affective reactions to racism and an internal/external motivation to respond without prejudice. The third aim explored whether Phase I or Phase II White racial identity ego schemas explained the relation of affective reactions to racism and internal/external motivation to respond without prejudice. PROCESS mediation models were used to assess the direct and indirect effects. Results indicated that the affective reactions “fear of others” and guilt, were related to the Phase I ego schemas, Disintegration and Reintegration. Guilt and Empathic reactions to racism were correlated with the Phase II ego schema Immersion/Emersion. The Phase I ego schemas, Disintegration and Reintegration, mediated the relation between all affective reactions and an external motivation to respond without prejudice. The Phase II ego schema Immersion/Emersion failed to mediate the relation between any of the affective reactions and internal motivation.