La memoria espacial se considera un factor selectivo en la evolución de la inteligencia. Los estudios en animales permiten pensar que los procesos cognitivos descriptos en los seres humanos tienen mucho en común con los de otras especies. En el caso de los primates sudamericanos, la diversidad de plantas que son fuente de alimento, y la forma en que éstas se distribuyen en tiempo y espacio, han sido señaladas como la mayor fuerza selectiva en el desarrollo de las complejidades cerebrales avanzadas. Es así que la conducta de búsqueda del alimento es uno de los ámbitos más accesibles a un enfoque cognitivo comparado. Se estudió el comportamiento espacial vinculado a la búsqueda del alimento de los monos caí o capuchinos, y su capacidad de retener información sobre la ubicación y estado del mismo. Si bien la memoria espacial había sido probada con anterioridad en esta especie, estos estudios evaluaban a los individuos de forma individual, excluidos de su grupo (contexto opuesto a la situación en la cual este comportamiento ha evolucionado en ambiente natural), o utilizaban diseños experimentales insertados por el investigador en el ambiente, evaluando la capacidad de memoria de lugar y de cantidades de retribución de alimento esperada, sin cambios estacionales ni de maduración del recurso. Durante el desarrollo de la presente tesis se estudió este comportamiento en contexto de grupo, analizando si los individuos eran capaces de integrar la información memorizada acerca de los sitios de alimento, y si esta memoria implicaba o no el registro de los cambios de estado del recurso. El capítulo 1 incluye una revisión bibliográfica introductoria sobre el tema. A lo largo del capítulo 2 se construyó un etograma parcial de las conductas vinculadas a la búsqueda, localización y consumo del alimento de los grupos de monos estudiados tanto en cautiverio como en vida silvestre. Se realizó una comparación de los resultados obtenidos en el marco de las publicaciones sobre comportamiento alimentario en capuchinos. En el capítulo 3 se presentan los experimentos realizados para evaluar la capacidad de memoria de corto y de largo plazo en dos grupos de Cebus apella paraguayanus = Cebus libidinosus = sapajus cay (N = 10; N = 6) en cautiverio y semi-cautiverio en el Jardín Zoológico y Botánico de La Plata, Buenos Aires, Argentina. Los individuos estudiados fueron capaces de recordar las posiciones de los sitios de alimento accesible e inaccesible por períodos de 48 horas, 76 días y hasta 4 meses, utilizando el aprendizaje de conjuntos (o sets de aprendizaje) para minimizar los tiempos de re-aprendizaje frente a un cambio en la estructura espacial aprendida, utilizando la memoria espacial y aumentando su eficiencia de forrajeo. En el capítulo 4 se presentan los resultados de un diseño observacional cualitativo utilizado durante los seguimientos de tres grupos de Cebus apella nigritus = Cebus nigritus = Sapajus nigritus (Rita N=12-19, Gundolf N=20-23, Macuco N=27-32) en sus desplazamientos diarios dentro del Parque Nacional Iguazú, Misiones, Argentina. Se evaluaron las cantidades de fruta madura e inmadura presentes en los árboles de fruta que consumen los monos, y se registraron las visitas a los mismos. Las visitas resultaron dependientes de la presencia de fruta y de la cantidad de fruta madura-inmadura, indicando que los monos retienen información particular de la ubicación y condición de cada árbol. Por último, el capítulo 5 incluye una comparación teórica de los procesos de memoria espacial de primates humanos y no-humanos, y una conclusión sobre el tema estudiado y los resultados obtenidos en los capítulos 2, 3 y 4. Estos conocimientos son fundamentales para la comprensión del funcionamiento de los mecanismos cognitivos no mediados por el lenguaje, permitiendo un mejor análisis de la base biológica del comportamiento espacial humano y a la vez enfatizando las características de nuestra especie en particular.

In light of exceptionally delayed reproductive senescence exhibited by a 64 year old female chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) housed in Florida, endocrinal analyses meant to determine the state of her current reproductive viability were conducted. Urine was collected from the study subject for a period of 88 days spaced within an interim of roughly 6 months and the specimens were sent to the Hominoid Reproductive Ecology Laboratory for assessment. Additional data was collected from three control females in order to provide a basis of comparison against the hormonal markers present in the geriatric study animal. Results indicate that the geriatric female does not presently appear to be cycling, but nor does she exhibit signs of complete reproductive cessation. This could signify that Pan troglodytes adheres to a pattern of reproductive aging not necessarily shared by Homo sapiens, which has further implications for the evolutionary trajectory of menopause in the human female. / by Christina T. Cloutier. / Thesis (M.A.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2010. / Includes bibliography. / Electronic reproduction. Boca Raton, Fla., 2010. Mode of access: World Wide Web.

La structure sociale d'un groupe peut théoriquement réguler la transmission des informations et le risques de maladies via les contacts sociaux et la proximité. En théorie, les mêmes propriétés de réseau qui favorisent la transmission d'information favorisent également la transmission de pathogènes, créant de fait un potentiel compromis entre eux. Dans ma thèse, j'ai utilisé des données empiriques, des analyses de réseaux et modèle de simulation individuel afin de comprendre l'influence des structures sociales sur la transmission sociale chez les primates et dans des réseaux théoriques. Mes études ont montré que i) les macaques japonais centraux dans Je groupe transmettent les pathogènes plus rapidement mais sont également plus susceptibles d' être infectés; ii) le nombre d'individus infectés dans 40 groupes de primates est dépendant des propriétés globales du réseau et de l'étape de l'infection: iii) un pic d'efficacité de réseau à des valeurs intermédiaires de sous­ structure de groupe dans des réseaux empiriques et théoriques ; et iv) des variations dans les propriétés de réseaux sont la conséquence de décisions individuelles en fonction de compromise entre la collecte d'information et l'évitement de l'infection. Ainsi, ma thèse a démontré les mécanismes de transmission social et indiqué que les propriétés de réseau pourrait réflecter un compromise entre transmission de l'information et transmission de pathogène. / Social structure can theoretically regulate information transmission and disease risk via social contact or proximity. In theory, the same network properties that favor information transmission also favor pathogen transmission creating a potential trade-off between them. In my thesis, I used empirical data, network analysis and individual-based modelling to understand the influence of social structure on social transmission in primate and theoretical networks. My studies show that i) central Japanese macaques transmit disease faster but are also more prone to acquiring infectious agents; ii) the number of infected individuals in 40 wild primate groups is dependent on global network properties and epidemic time; iii) network efficiency peaks with intermediate values of group substructure in theoretical and empirical networks; and, iv) variation in the network properties is a consequence of individual decisions given the trade-offs between collecting information and avoiding infection. Altogether, my thesis reveals the mechanisms of social transmission and indicates that network properties might reflect a trade-off between information and pathogen transmission.

Chez les mammifères, les dents sont un outil essentiel à la fragmentation et à la fracture des aliments. En retour, les propriétés mécaniques des aliments exercent une pression de sélection sur la morphologie dentaire. L'objectif de ce mémoire est de déterminer si ce signal adaptatif peut être détecté à partir de la morphologie des molaires chez les primates actuels et fossiles. Dans ce cadre, la topographie dentaire 3D de 31 espèces de primates actuels est étudiée à l'aide d'une combinaison de variables classiques et originales. Un colobe fossile, Mesopithecus pentelicus du Miocène terminal de Pikermi (Grèce), est également analysé. Les résultats sont interprétés à partir du régime alimentaire mais aussi d'un système de catégorisation inédit évaluant le champ mécanique d'aptitude à cisailler, écraser et « craquer » les aliments.Les variables choisies permettent de distinguer de façon significative les catégories alimentaires et les champs d'aptitude au sein de l'échantillon actuel. Elles prédisent également que M. pentelicus avait une morphologie dentaire intermédiaire, et qu'il était apte à « craquer » des aliments durs tout en maintenant une adaptation à cisailler des aliments coriaces. En outre, les nouvelles variables permettent de montrer que les crêtes d'émail sont significativement plus tranchantes chez les espèces consommant des aliments coriaces, ce qui confirme leur utilisation en tant qu'outil de cisaillement. En revanche, la distribution de l'épaisseur de l'émail semble être plus homogène chez les espèces durophages, suggérant que la dent entière constitue l'outil élémentaire de « cracking » chez les primates. / Mammalian teeth are a major tool in food cominution and fracture. Conversely, food mechanical properties apply a strong selective pressure on dental morphology. The aim of this manuscript is to investigate whether this adaptive signal can be detected from dental shape in extant and extinct primates.In this context, the 3D dental topography of 31 species of extant primates is analyzed with a combination of traditional and original variables. Furthermore one extinct colobine monkey, Mesopithecus pentelicus from the Late Miocene of Pikermi (Greece) is investigated. The results are interpreted using dietary categories, but also a novel categorization system that evaluates the mechanical scope of food shearing, grinding and cracking.Selected variables show significant differences between dietary categories as well as mechanical scopes across the sample. Moreover, the dental morphology of M. pentelicus is predicted to be intermediate between hard food cracking and tough food shearing taxa.In addition, the new variables show that shearing crests are significantly sharper in tough food shearers, which confirms their suggested role as a dental shearing tool. In contrast, enamel thickness distribution seems more homogenous within durophageous species, which suggests that the whole tooth per se makes the basic cracking tool of primates.

En appliquant des règles apprises, les humains sont capables de résoudre avec précision de nombreux problèmes avec un minimum d'effort cognitif. Pourtant, ce genre de résolution de problèmes basé sur les habitudes peut favoriser un type d'inflexibilité cognitive appelé « set cognitif ». Le set cognitif se produit lorsqu'une stratégie alternative plus efficace est masquée par une solution connue et familière. Dans cette recherche, j’ai testé si le set cognitif diffère entre espèces de primates et entre cultures humaines, en utilisant une tâche LS-DS informatisée non verbale, qui mesure la capacité des sujets à s'écarter d'une stratégie apprise (LS) pour adopter une stratégie directe (DS) plus efficace. Premièrement, j'ai comparé la capacité de babouins, de chimpanzés et d’humains à briser le set cognitif pour constater que seuls les babouins et les chimpanzés utilisaient le raccourci DS quand il devenait disponible. Dans une étude complémentaire, j’ai analysé les mouvements oculaires de sujets humains pour déterminer si la solution DS est soit visuellement négligées, soit vues mais négligées. Les sujets humains ont regardé le raccourci, mais ils ne l'ont pas utilisé jusqu'à ce que leur conceptualisation des contraintes du problème ait été altérée. Enfin, j'ai comparé le set cognitif entre les occidentaux et les Himba semi-nomades du nord de la Namibie. Cette étude a révélé que la susceptibilité au set cognitif variait selon les cultures humaines. Je discute en conclusion les origines des variations stratégiques constatées entre espèces et entre cultures humaines. / By applying learned rules, humans are able to accurately solve many problems with minimal cognitive effort; yet, this sort of habit-based problem solving may readily foster a type of cognitive inflexibility termed ‘cognitive set’. Cognitive set occurs when an alternative – even more efficient – strategy is masked by a known, familiar solution. In this research, I explored how cognitive set differs between primate species and across human cultures, using a nonverbal computerized ‘LS-DS’ task, which measures subjects’ ability to depart from a learned strategy (LS) in order to adopt a more efficient, direct strategy (DS or ‘the shortcut’). I compared baboons’, chimpanzees’, and humans’ abilities to break cognitive set and found that all baboon and chimpanzee subjects used the DS shortcut when it became available; yet, humans exhibited a remarkable preference for the LS. Next, in an effort to elucidate how cognitive set occludes alternative strategies, I tracked human participants’ eye movements to identify whether better solutions were a) visually overlooked or b) seen but disregarded. Although human subjects saw the shortcut, they did not use it until their conceptualization of the problem constraints were altered. Lastly, I compared shortcut-use between Westerners and the semi-nomadic Himba of northern Namibia. This study found that susceptibility to cognitive set varied across human cultures and presented further evidence that problem conceptualization, not perceptual processing, influences individuals’ ability to use the alternative. Overall, this research provides a novel comparison of cognitive flexibility within the primate lineage and across human cultures.

GnRH is a decapeptide hormone, which plays a major role in the process of mammalian reproduction. It is synthesized by the hypothalamus and binds to its cognate receptor on the pituitary, to bring about the release of gonadotropins LH and FSH. The gonadotropin releasing hormone receptor belongs to the family of G-protein coupled receptors that are characterized by the presence of seven putative transmembrane regions linked by extracellular and intracellular loops. It is a glycoprotein made up of 327 amino acids. During the last several years cloning of this receptor from a number of species has provided considerable insight into the molecular basis of interaction between GnRH and its receptor. The GnRH receptor has been cloned and sequenced from a large number of mammalian species such as human, sheep, cow, rat, mouse, etc. GnRH receptor is known to be unique among the G protein coupled receptors by virtue of the fact that it lacks a C terminal tail which has been implicated in coupling to G-proteins in several seven transmembrane domain receptors. Other members of this G-protein coupled receptor family such as the Luetinising hormone receptor, Follicle stimulating hormone receptor contain the characteristic cytoplasmic tail of about 68-72 amino acids, which is believed to possess a plasma membrane targeting signal sequence. Mutation studies carried out revealed that this C terminal sequence may be important in membrane trafficking in other G protein coupled receptors, since mutant forms of the receptor were not expressed on the plasma membrane. In many G-protein coupled receptors, part of the cytoplasmic tail is important for desensitization and internalization. However, the GnRH receptor is an exception in that its G protein coupling and desensitization functions are dependent on regions of the GnRH receptor other than the carboxy terminal cytoplasmic domain. It has been well established that binding of GnRH to its cognate receptor induces conformational change and it is suggested that the entire extracellular loop and transmembrane region are involved in binding and signal transduction. It is pertinent to note in this connection, that the use of both polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies has contributed significantly to the understanding of the interactions between ligands and their cognate receptors. Recent studies have established that there are several extrahypothalamic sites of production of GnRH, which include testes, lymphocytes, human placenta, mammary gland etc. Of these the production of GnRH in the human placenta has attracted attention in view of the demonstration that the placental chorionic gonadotropin production (CG) is regulated by placental GnRH. Our laboratory has been investigating the role of GnRH in regulation of Chorionic Gonadotropin (CG) using both in vitro human placental villi system and pregnant bonnet monkey as models. One important and interesting observation that has been made in our studies as well as by several others is that the affinity of the placental GnRH receptor to its ligand is quite low compared to the pituitary receptor. Available evidence indicates that the hypothalamic and the placental GnRH are similar in structure and consequently the difference in the affinity could be attributed to the differences between the pituitary and the placental GnRH receptor. Considering this, it will be ideal and of interest to compare the GnRH receptor from the pituitary and placenta of a species in which both in vitro and in vivo studies can be carried out. For obvious ethical reasons, in vivo studies cannot be carried out with humans. Since very little information is available on the GnRH receptor in non-human primates, as a first step we undertook the task of characterizing the GnRH receptor from the bonnet monkey pituitary and production of antibodies to it, since all the studies carried out so far with antibodies to GnRH receptor have employed antibodies generated to a small stretch of peptide in the extracellular region. Thus the objective of the present study is to clone and express the GnRH receptor from the pituitary of the bonnet monkey {Macaco radiata), raise antibodies and to characterize them functionally. Chapter 1 provides a general review of information currently available regarding structure of GnRH and its receptor as well as the results of studies using antibodies directed to the GnRH receptor fragments. Chapter 2 deals with the partial cloning of the GnRH receptor from the pituitary of the bonnet monkeys by the technique of RT-PCR. We were able to amplify a PCR fragment of 959bp corresponding to the almost full-length GnRH receptor sequence. Southern blot analysis using the full length human pituitary GnRH receptor cDNA as the probe revealed that the 959 bp product was able to hybridize to the probe, confirming the authenticity of the PCR product. Restriction mapping with three different restriction enzymes also gave the expected pattern. Additional evidence was obtained by cloning of this PCR product into expression vector pGEX 5X-2 and sequencing a number of clones. The sequences obtained were then subjected to homology search with other known GnRH receptor sequences available in the Genebank. The sequence was found to be 97% homologous to the human pituitary GnRH receptor sequence and also showed a high degree of homology with the GnRH receptor from other species. Although antibodies have been raised to the GnRH receptor by immunizing rabbits with synthetic peptides corresponding to extracellular regions of the receptor, most of the antibodies have a very low affinity towards the native receptor. Also results of studies using these antibodies indicated that the peptide antibodies failed to recognize the native receptor. Initially we made efforts to express the full-length receptor in E.coli BL21 cells. However, since we were not successful in our attempts to express the full length, we resorted to express a smaller fragment which corresponded to amino acids 164-266, that encompassed one extracellular, two transmembrane and one intracellular domain. Before we proceeded ahead to express this fragment, the authenticity of this fragment was established by southern hybridization, restriction mapping as well as sequencing. This monkey pituitary GnRH receptor fragment corresponding to 315 bp was cloned in the expression vector pGEX 5X-2 and the protein corresponding to this region was overexpressed as a recombinant fusion protein in E.coli. BL21 plys S strain. Overexpression of the protein was induced using IPTG and the lysate was subjected to electrophoresis on a SDS-PAGE gel A signal corresponding to 37Kda, which is in agreement with the expected size (GST portion of the fusion protein plus the peptide) was observed following induction with IPTG. The overexpressed protein was found to be localized to the inclusion bodies, and this was purified from inclusion bodies by cutting out the band corresponding to the overexpressed protein from the preparative SDS-PAGE gels and the protein was eluted out by electroelution. Sera from the rabbits, which were immunized with the overexpressed protein, were checked for the presence of antibodies by ELISA, using the purified protein as the antigen. After ascertaining the presence of high titre antibodies in the sera of immunized animals, the serum was used to detect the presence of GnRH receptor in the membrane preparations from rat pituitary, monkey pituitary and human placenta using the technique of western blotting. A signal corresponding to 68Kda was found in all the cases and the specificity of this signal was established by preabsorption of the antisemrn with pituitary and placental membrane preparations, which resulted in decrease in the intensity of the signal. . The antiserum was also used to localize the GnRH receptor in different tissues such as first trimester and term human placenta, sheep pituitary, monkey placenta, human pituitary and rat prostate by the technique of immunotlourescence using the confocal microscope. The results of the above studies are presented in Chapter 3. Chapter 4 deals with the functional studies carried out using the antiserum to GnRH receptor in an in vivo system using male and female rats. As discussed earlier, all the reported studies on use of antibodies to GnRH receptor have employed a small region of the extracellular portion of the receptor for the production of antibodies. However, the antibodies in the present study have been directed towards a larger fragment, and considering this, it was of interest to evaluate the effect of these antibodies in in vivo as well as in vitro systems. Two approaches were used to evaluate the effect of antibodies, namely passive and active immunization i.e. administration of antiserum to GnRH receptor fragment raised in rabbits and also immunization with the overexpressed recombinant GnRH receptor protein. This study was carried out in both immature as well as adult male rats and also in the cycling female rats. Several parameters were monitored, which included various androgen dependent parameters in the male reproductive tissue i.e. body weight, testes weight as well as the weight of accessory sex organ-the prostate and also the fertility status. In the female rats the changes in the weight of the ovary, uterus, serum E2 and P4 were monitored. No effect on the body weight, testis weight or prostate weight was noticed in the treated animals compared to the controls. Furthermore, an indication that the hypothalamo-pituitary-gonadal axis was not compromised in the passively immunized animals was obtained from the observation that there was no decrease in the serum and testicular testosterone levels. In fact, there was a significant increase in the serum and testicular testosterone levels. This suggested the possibility that the antibodies are exerting a ßßstimulatory effect. To ascertain this possibility, two androgen dependent parameters namely the levels of mRNA for TGF ß, which is androgen repressed gene and Prostatein Cl, which is an androgen induced gene were monitored. It was observed that there was a significant increase in the steady state mRNA level of Prostatein Cl in GnRH antiserum treated animals and a corresponding decrease in TGFß mRNA levels. Active immunization study with injection of the recombinant protein was also carried out in adult male rats. All immunized animals responded to the immunization by producing high titre antibodies, the presence of which was detected by ELISA using the recombinant protein as the antigen. The results of the study revealed that there was no change in the body weight, testis weight or prostate weight. However, there was a significant increase in the serum and testicular testosterone levels compared to the control animals. Fertility studies indicated that all the animals were fertile. However, as in the case of passive immunization studies, an increase in the mRNA levels of Prostatein Cl was noted although the level of TGFß, which is an androgen repressed gene could not be monitored in this case due to the very high levels of endogenous androgens present in these animals. Thus it appears that the antibodies produced both in rabbits as well as in rats were stimulatory in nature probably indicating some specific characteristic of the region of the receptor to which the antibody has been raised. The results obtained in the present study are of significance considering the fact that studies using the antibodies to LH receptor and TSH receptor, both of which belong to the G-protein coupled family also report production of stimulatory antibodies. Active immunization studies using the GnRH receptor protein in the female rats also revealed that the antibodies were not compromising the hypothalamo-pituitary-gonadal axis. Accordingly, there was no decrease in the serum or ovarian levels of estradiol 17ß and progesterone and there was no difference in the ovarian weight. However, a significant decrease in the uterine weight and difference in the histology of the uterus of the immunized animals was observed. This is of significance, considering the fact that the presence of the GnRH receptor has been reported in the uterus also. In an attempt to develop an in vitro system to monitor the effect of GnRH receptor antibody, an in vitro incubation system with the human placental villi, which is known to produce both GnRH and hCG was standardized. Sensitive ELISA and RIA were developed for GnRH and hCG, respectively to monitor their levels.The results of the studies on the effect of addition of GnRH receptor antibody to the immunoreactive hCG levels in the placental incubation medium are presented in Chapter 5. In addition, advantage was taken of the report of the presence of the specific receptors for GnRH in the Leydig cells of the rats, to evaluate the effect of the GnRH receptor antibodies on the function of leydig cells. Results of studies in which the effect of addition of GnRH receptor antibodies on the testosterone production by purified rat Leydig cells were monitored revealed that there was no inhibitory effect. Finally in the Chapter 6, a general discussion and critical evaluation of the results obtained in the study, in light of similar studies reported in literature are presented.

Mémoire numérisé par la Division de la gestion de documents et des archives de l'Université de Montréal

Les animaux, comme les hommes, prennent quotidiennement des décisions en ayant une connaissance imparfaite des résultats potentiels. De nombreuses études s’intéressent aux mécanismes de la prise de décision, et pourtant leur origine évolutive reste peu connue. Ce travail combine éthologie et économie expérimentale, et met en oeuvre une approche ontogénique (enfants - adultes) et phylogénétique (singes -grands singes) afin de mieux comprendre l’universalité et l’origine des mécanismes de la prise de décision chez les primates. La méthode expérimentale – un jeu d’échange mimant des choix en situation incertaine – a été appliquée de manière comparable à toutes les espèces et les résultats analysés à l’aide des modèles économiques classiques. En situation risquée, singes et grands singes ont intégré les probabilités de gains et de pertes dans leur décision, ce que les enfants de moins de 5 ans ont été incapables. Néanmoins, tous les groupes étudiés ont exprimés des erreurs de jugement qui confirment donc une origine évolutive ancienne.Face à l’ambiguïté, les primates non-humains ont su adaptés leurs stratégies et globalement maximiser leurs bénéfices. / Animals, like people, have to deal with imperfect knowledge of potential out comes when making everyday life decisions. Many studies focus on mechanisms of decision making, yet their evolutionary origin remains unknown. To better understand the universality and the origin of the mechanisms of decision making in primates, this work combines an onto genetic approach (children - adults) and phylogenetic (monkeys - apes) associated with ethology and experimental economics. The experimental method - a gambling game - has been applied in a similar way to all species, and the results have been analyzed using classical economic models. Under risk, monkeys and apes have incorporated the probabilities of gains and losses in their decision,whereas children under 5 years old were unable. However, all groups studied expressed errors of judgment, therefore confirming an ancient evolutionary origin. Under ambiguity, non-human primates have managed to adapt their strategies to maximize their overall benefits.

Les Virus de l'Immunodéficience Humaine (VIH) sont le résultat de plusieurs transmissions inter-espèces de SIV (Virus de l'Immunodéficience Simienne) de Primates Non Humains (PNH) à l'Homme. Les SIV les plus proches du VIH-1 sont le SIVcpz et le SIVgor qui infectent naturellement les chimpanzés et les gorilles. Les SIVsmm retrouvés chez les mangabés enfumés d'Afrique de l'Ouest sont les plus proches du VIH-2. Actuellement, au moins 13 transmissions du singe à l'Homme ont été documentées, 4 à l'origine des 4 groupes du VIH-1 (groupe M, N, O et P) et 9 pour le 9 VIH-2 (A-I). La question du réservoir à l'origine du VIH-1 chez l'Homme est partiellement résolue. Les chimpanzés, Pan troglodytes troglodytes, du sud-est et centre sud du Cameroun sont respectivement les réservoirs du VIH-1 M pandémique chez l'Homme ainsi que du VIH-1 groupe N. En ce qui concerne les groupes O et P, il n'y a actuellement pas de réponse définitive. Les SIVgor sont bien les virus les plus proches phylogénétiquement des VIH-1 O et P. Cependant, de plus amples recherches sont nécessaires pour identifier les ancêtres directs des variants O et P. Ces recherches supplémentaires aideront aussi à élucider l'origine du SIVgor chez les gorilles, et à savoir si ce sont les gorilles qui ont transmis les virus O et/ou P à l'Homme, ou s'il existe toujours un réservoir des ancêtres O et P chez les chimpanzés. Des études supplémentaires sont aussi nécessaires afin de mieux comprendre les mécanismes d'adaptation à un nouvel hôte et l'impact des infections SIV chez les grands singes. Dans ce but, l'étude du récepteur accessoire pour le VIH, l'intégrine α4β7, pourrait aussi jouer un rôle pour l'infection du SIV/VIH. Cette intégrine facilite également la migration du virus vers l'intestin. Une étude récente a montré des substitutions d'acides aminés chez les Primates du Nouveau Monde (PNM) qui empêche l'adhérence du liant. Ainsi, les polymorphismes de cette intégrine et son rôle dans l'infection SIV chez les Primates de l'Ancien Monde (PdAM) sont encore inconnus. L'objectif majeur de cette thèse était de mieux documenter et mieux comprendre l'infection SIV chez les gorilles sauvages en Afrique Centrale. Sur plus de 6.000 échantillons testés, nous avons constaté que seuls les gorilles (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) du sud Cameroun sont infectés par le SIVgor. Parmi eux, nous avons identifié les ancêtres du VIH-1 P chez des populations du sud-ouest Cameroun. Nous avons aussi mis en évidence que les gorilles sont à l'origine du VIH-1 groupe O. Les analyses fonctionnelles du facteur de restriction APOBEC3G ont montré que celui-ci protège les gorilles des infections SIVcpz, expliquant en partie la faible prévalence de SIVgor. Nous avons évalué une nouvelle technologie sérologique, le Luminex®, en utilisant des antigènes spécifiques de la lignée SIVgor. Ces résultats ont été comparés avec ceux que nous pouvons obtenir avec l'INNO-LIATM qui est une technique de référence basée sur des réactions croisées entre anticorps SIV et antigènes VIH-1. Nous avons aussi évalué la faisabilité de la technologie de séquençage de deuxième génération Illumina® pour étudier les viromes de deux gorilles. Nous n'avons pas pu obtenir la séquence du SIVgor dans l'échantillon de l'individu infecté. Cependant, en comparant les résultats obtenus entre les deux gorilles étudiés, nous avons pu constater un probable déséquilibre de la réplication des virus entériques seulement pour le gorille infecté par le SIVgor. Enfin, nous avons décrit la diversité de la sous-unité α4 de l'intégrine α4β7 chez les PdAM. En conclusion, ces travaux de thèse ont apporté de nouvelles connaissances majeures sur l'infection SIV chez les gorilles et ont contribués à élucider l'origine des quatre groupes VIH-1. / Human Immunodeficiency Viruses (HIV) are the result of numerous interspecies transmissions of different SIV (Simian Immunodeficiency Virus) from Non-Human Primates (NHP) to humans. SIVcpz and SIVgor from chimpanzees and gorillas are most closely related to HIV-1, and SIVsmm from sooty mangabeys in West Africa to HIV-2. At least 13 cross-species transmissions from NHP to humans have been reported, 4 leading to the 4 HIV-1 group (M, N, O and P) and 9 for the 9 HIV-2 groups (A-I). Today the origin of HIV-1 group M and N is elucidated and their simian ancestors, have been identified in chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes troglodytes) populations in southeast and south-central Cameroon, respectively. HIV-1 group O and P are most closely related to SIVgor from gorillas but their direct ancestors have not been identified yet. More studies are thus needed to clarify the origin of HIV-1 group O and P in humans as well as on the origin of SIVgor in gorillas. These studies will also elucidate whether HIV-1 group O and P have been transmitted by chimpanzees or gorillas and whether simian ancestors of these HIV groups and the ancestor of SIVgor still circulates in today's chimpanzee populations. More studies are also needed to understand viral and host factors related adaptation in the new host and the impact of SIV infection in general in apes. As such, α4β7 integrin has been recently described as a new HIV-1 receptor that facilitates virus migration to the Gut-Associated Lymphoid Tissue (GALT). In a recent study, amino acid substitutions were observed in the α4 binding site in New World Primates (NWP), that can reduce the activity of this receptor. The impact of the genetic diversity of this integrin in Old World Primates (OWP) and its role in SIV infection is still unknown. Therefore, characterizing the polymorphisms profiles in OWP could bring new insights into progression of the pathogenic and non pathogenic SIV infections. The main objective of this thesis was to better characterize and understand SIV infection in wild gorillas in Central Africa. On more than 6,000 fecal samples from gorillas collected across Central Africa, we showed that only gorillas from southern Cameroon are infected with SIVgor and we identified the ancestors of HIV1 group P in gorilla populations from southwest Cameroon. We also provided evidence that gorillas are at the origin of HIV-1 group O in humans. Functional analysis of the restriction factor APOBEC3G showed that its protects gorillas from SIVcpz infections and can explain the low prevalence in gorillas. We evaluated a new antibody detection approach in faecal samples, based on Luminex® technology that use SIVgor specific antigens, comparing with the actual serological test INNO-LIATM HIV confirmatory assay, based on cross-reactive SIV antibodies with HIV antigens. We also evaluated the feasibility of virus sequencing in faecal samples with the Illumina® technology to study viromes of gorillas. We studied two samples, one of a SIVgor infected individual and one from an uninfected gorilla. Although the SIVgor sequence was not retrieved from the infected individual, we observed a tendency to enteric virus replication disorder in the infected animal that has not been seen in the uninfected one. Finally, we also documented here the genetic diversity of the α4 subunit from OWP. In this thesis we documented more in detail different aspects of SIV infection in gorillas and contributed to elucidate the origin of all HIV-1 groups.

Les macaques sont-ils capables de prendre en compte le préjudice porté à autrui occasionné par leurs actes ? Si oui, quelles facultés leur permettent de l'appréhender et quelles variables influenceraient leurs décisions dans de tels contextes sociaux ? De la perception à la production de comportements sociaux, une multitude de processus mentaux complexes permettent aux macaques de vivre au sein d'une société dynamique, structurée et cohésive. Bien que la présence de comportements pro et antisociaux y ait déjà été décrite, leurs causes ultimes et proximales ne sont pas évidentes. Est-ce que l'empathie, définie ici comme la capacité à ressentir les émotions d'autrui, pourrait expliquer l'expression de comportements prosociaux ? Les réponses à de telles questions peuvent avoir des répercussions importantes pour les sciences, mais aussi pour la philosophie et l'éthique. L'originalité et la pertinence de notre démarche expérimentale résident dans la mesure objective des comportements sociaux à l'aide de dispositifs et protocoles novateurs conçus et validés au cours de cette thèse. Nous avons en effet entrepris de reproduire un contexte social dans un environnement contrôlé de laboratoire. Ainsi, en plaçant deux animaux face à face, nous avons mis au point un protocole de décision sociale unique permettant à un macaque acteur de choisir de délivrer soit un stimulus aversif (un jet d'air comprimé sur le visage) soit un stimulus appétitif (une goutte de jus de fruit) à son partenaire, à un espace vide ou à lui-même. Les choix étant organisés en paires, l'acteur devait sélectionner soit l'option prosociale, soit l'option antisociale ou, pour des décisions contrôles non-sociales, soit l'option rationnelle, soit l'option irrationnelle. Des analyses appropriées des mesures oculométriques (niveau de regard mutuel et fréquence de clignement des yeux) nous ont permis d'établir des relations entre réponses émotionnelles et tendances pro- (ou anti-) social et de révéler des processus homologues à ceux impliqués dans l'empathie émotionnelle humaine, car dépendants des expériences passées et des relations entretenues avec le partenaire / Do macaques are able to take into account others' welfare during social decisions-making ? If so, what capacities allow them to apprehend it and which variables would influence their decisions in such social contexts ? From perception to the production of social behavior, a multitude of complex mental processes allow macaques to live in a dynamic society, structured and cohesive. Although the presence of pro-and antisocial behavior had already been described, their ultimate and proximate causes are not known. Does empathy, defined here as the ability to feel the emotions of others, could explain the expression of pro-social behavior? The answers to such questions might have important implications for science, but also in philosophy and ethics. The originality and relevance of our experimental approach lies in the objective measurement of social behavior using innovative devices and protocols developed and validated during this thesis. Indeed, we aimed to reproduce a social context in a controlled laboratory environment. Thus, by placing two animals face to face, we have developed a unique protocol for social decision allowing a macaque to delivered either an aversive stimulus (an air puff on the face), an appetitive stimulus (drop of fruit juice) to its partner, to an empty space or to itself. The choices are organized in pairs, the actor had to select either the prosocial option or antisocial option or, for non-social controls decision the rational or irrational option. Appropriate analyzes of eye tracking measures (level of mutual gaze and blink frequency) allowed us to establish relationships between emotional responses and pro (or anti) social trends. It revealed processes dependent on past experiences and relationships with the partner, thus homologous to those involved in human emotional empathy