Thesis advisor: David Krauss / Behavior in a confined group of mandrills (Mandrillus sphinx) and a confined group of ring tailed lemurs (Lemur catta) were analyzed to reveal any significant differences in agonistic behaviors and to assess the varying stress levels between individuals. I predicted that the activity rate of the individuals would determine the amount of agonistic behavior demonstrated, specifically that more active individuals would be more frequently performing agonistic behaviors than those who were less active. The mandrills as a whole exhibited a higher activity rate than the lemurs, and the proportion of time spent exhibiting agonistic behaviors was also higher, as expected. These results suggest that the mandrill population is under more stress than the lemurs. Differences in the age makeup of these groups may partially explain the behavioral differences that occurred: the mandrills' group included a juvenile who was considerably more active than his parents while all three lemurs observed were adults. Differences in the size of the exhibit may also explain the differences as the exhibit for the mandrills was smaller than that of the lemurs, while the mandrills were more than triple the lemurs' size. This analysis supports earlier studies: that primate behavior is influenced strongly by their environment and its cohabitants. / Thesis (BS) — Boston College, 2004. / Submitted to: Boston College. College of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Biology. / Discipline: College Honors Program.

Originalmente da Bahia, a espécie Leontopithecus chrysomelas foi introduzida no estado do Rio de Janeiro provavelmente por meio do tráfico e atualmente é encontrado em uma das áreas remanescentes de ocupação natural do mico-leão-dourado (Leontopithecus rosalia) podendo comprometer a sobrevivência do último. Visando mitigar esse problema foi criado um plano de ação, onde se recomenda a captura dos animais introduzidos. Procedimentos de captura e contenção química produzem estresse e afetam diretamente a homeostase, podendo alterar diretamente a saúde e o bem estar dos animais somando-se o fato de os protocolos de capturas atuais gerarem um período de recuperação prolongado. O objetivo deste trabalho consistiu em determinar e comparar os efeitos cardiorrespiratórios da dexmedetomidina, quando associada à cetamina S(+) ou à cetamina racêmica, e do midazolam associado à cetamina S(+), por via intramuscular, na contenção química de mico-leão-da-cara-dourada. Foram utilizados 45 animais da espécie Leontopithecus chrysomelas, adultos, machos, pesando em média 532 gramas, oriundos do Centro de Primatologia do Rio de Janeiro, em parceria com a ONG PRI-MATAS. Os animais foram distribuídos em três grupos onde receberam aleatoriamente as associações: CSM - cetamina S(+) (15 mg/kg) e midazolam (0,5 mg/kg); CSD - cetamina S(+) (15 mg/kg) e dexmedetomidina (10 µg/kg); e CD - cetamina racêmica (15 mg/kg) e dexmedetomidina (10 µg/kg). Foram avaliados os períodos de latência, hábil e de recuperação. A frequência e ritmo cardíacos, frequência respiratória, saturação da oxihemoglobina periférica, pressão arterial sistólica, temperatura retal, qualidade de indução e de recuperação, sedação, antinocicepção e grau de relaxamento muscular foram monitorados a cada cinco minutos durante 50 minutos. Os dados paramétricos foram avaliados pela análise de variância (ANOVA) seguida do teste de Tukey. Os dados não paramétricos foram avaliados pelo teste de Kruskal-Wallis seguido do teste de Dunn para identificar quais grupos apresentavam diferença estatística significativa. O grau de significância estabelecido para as análises foi de 5% (p<0,05). Os valores referentes aos parâmetros de frequência respiratória, saturação da oxihemoglobina periférica, temperatura, pressão arterial sistólica, início da perda de tônus muscular, latência e os períodos de recuperação parcial e total não apresentaram diferença entre os grupos. Já os valores de frequência cardíaca, relaxamento muscular, antinocicepção, grau de sedação e consumo de lidocaína apresentaram diferença significativa entre os mesmos momentos dos grupos CSM e CSD, e CSM e CD. Conclui-se que as associações de dexmedetomidina com cetamina racêmica e cetamina S(+) apresentaram os melhores índices de relaxamento muscular, sedação e antinocicepção e mostraram-se seguras para a realização de cirurgia de vasectomia em micos-leão-da-cara-dourada. Apesar dos grupos CSD e CD apresentarem bradicardia mais acentuada, os valores mantiveram-se dentro do limite esperado. / The Golden-headed lion tamarin, originally endemic to the southern Bahia region, was introduced in the state of Rio de Janeiro probably by illegal wildlife trade activity. The species is currently found in one of the remaining areas of natural occupation of the golden lion tamarin (Leontopithecus rosalia), which may compromise the survival of the latter. In order to mitigate this problem, an action plan was elaborated and the capture of golden-headed lion tamarins recommended. Both capture and chemical restraint procedures can cause stress and compromise homeostasis with a direct effect on the health and well-being of the animals. Besides that, current chemical immobilization protocols usually result in prolonged recovery times. This study aims to determine and compare the cardiovascular and respiratory effects of three different protocols for chemical immobilization of golden-headed lion tamarins. Thirty-five adult male specimens of Leontopithecus chrysomelas were studied. Animals were randomly separated into three groups: ketamine S(+) and midazolam (15 mg kg-1 and 0.5 mg kg--1-) (KSM group), ketamine S(+) and dexmedetomidine (15 mg kg--1- and 10 µg kg-1) (KSD group) and racemic ketamine and dexmedetomidine (15 mg kg-1 and 10 µg kg-1 ) (KD group). Periods of latency, immobilization and recovery were evaluated. Heart rate and rhythm, respiratory rate, peripheral oxyhemoglobin saturation, systolic blood pressure, rectal temperature, induction and recovery quality, sedation, antinociception, and degree of muscle relaxation were monitored every five minutes for 50 minutes. Parametric data were analyzed by using repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by a Tukey\'s test. Non-parametric data were analyzed by the Kruskal-Wallis test followed by Dunn\'s test. Values of P< 0.05 were considered statistically significant. No significant differences were found in respiratory rate, peripheral oxygen saturation, temperature, systolic blood pressure, onset of muscle tone loss, latency and partial and total recovery periods. Heart rate, sedation and muscle relaxation degrees, antinociception, and lidocaine consumption presented significant difference at the same moments between KSM and KSD and between KSM and KD. Marked bradycardia was presented on KSD and KD groups, with values remaining within the normal range. This study demonstrated that combinations of dexmedetomidine with racemic ketamine and S(+) ketamine presents the best outcomes for muscle relaxation, sedation and antinociception and were safe for vasectomy surgery in golden-headed lion tamarins.

O Brasil tem cerca de 133 espécie s e subespécie de primatas, das quais cerca de 35% são endêmicas. A ocupação e destruição cada vez maior dos ambientes naturais somadas a caça e o comércio ilegal de animais silvestres deixou algumas espécies de primatas seriamente ameaçadas de extinção. O presente estudo trata da morfologia do aparelho reprodutor de fêmeas de bugio (Alouatta caraya e Alouatta guariba clamitans), cujos resultados podem subsidiar pesquisas de reprodução visando sua conservação. Dez aparelhos reprodutores foram estudados macro e microscopicamente pelas técnicas de microscopia de luz e microscopia eletrônica de varredura. As idades das fêmeas foram estimadas utilizando-se uma chave dental. Os resultados mostraram que a vulva em Alouatta assemelha-se a genitália externa dos machos. O útero é simples e piriforme, caracterizado por uma cérvix longa. A musculatura cervical mostra-se bem desenvolvida e a musculatura uterina está organizada de uma maneira peculiar. O epitélio vaginal não mostrou sofrer alterações cíclicas. A característica mais significativa foi a presença de grandes quantidades de tecido intersticial glandular nos compactos ovários. De uma maneira geral a morfologia do aparelho reprodutor das fêmeas de bugio mostram similaridades com outras espécies de Platyrrhinii e poucas diferenças interespecíficas (Alouatta caraya-Alouatta gurariba clamitans). / Brazil has about 133 primate?s species and subespecies among which 35% are endemic. The land occupation, the natural environments destruction, hunting and the illegal commerce of wild animals left some species seriously threatened of extinction. The present study deals with the morphology of the reproductive tract of howler monkeys (Alouatta guariba clamitans and Alouatta caraya), wich data can subdize further reproduction researches, aiming its conservation. Ten female reproductive tract were studied microscopically and macroscopically. The age of the animals was estimated using a dental-age key, most of them were sexually mature. Representative fragments of the uterus, ovary, uterine tube and vagina were cut and prepared for histology and scanning electron microscopy. Our data showed that the Alouatta female vulva resembles the external genitalia of the male. The uterus are pyriform and caracterized by a long cervix. The muscular layer of the cervix was well developed and the musculature of the body of the uterus showed a particular organization. The vaginal epitheliium showd no ciclic alterations. The most significant feature found seems to be the presence of abundant glandular interstitial tissue in the compact ovaries. The female reproductive tract morphology of the howler monkey showed similarities with other Platyrrhini and few interespecific (Alouatta guariba clamitans ?Alouatta caraya) differences.

Reservas Indígenas têm tido um papel imprescindível na manutenção de áreas florestais na região neotropical. Existe na Amazônia uma clara associação entre estas reservas e a presença de cobertura florestal. Por outro lado, a simples presença de uma vegetação contínua não é garantia de conservação da biodiversidade, sobretudo em contextos onde a caça é presente. Este estudo analisou a pressão de caça sobre Macacoprego (Cebus apella) e Bugio (Alouatta belzebul), realizada pelos índios Guajá, da comunidade Awá (Maranhão, Brasil). A análise se baseou no conjunto de crânios e mandíbulas de indivíduos consumidos no local no final dos anos 1980. A análise de sustentabilidade se baseou em dois métodos principais, no Modelo de Produção e na análise do padrão intra-específico de abate. A aplicação do modelo de produção indicou uma caça acima dos níveis sustentáveis para as duas espécies, numa área efetiva de caça de 78,5 km2. Mesmo com a incorporação de uma área fonte, que resultou numa área total de 314 km2, o modelo continuou indicando uma caça não sustentável de Bugio. A análise do padrão intra-específico de abate, realizada somente para Bugio, indicou uma proporção de machos e adultos na amostra de Bugios abatidos significativamente maior do que aquela esperada para o gênero Alouatta, o que indica um padrão de caça não aleatório. Conjugando a análise quantitativa com os fatores locais de ordem demográfica e sóciocultural foi possível verificar a presença de fatores positivos e negativos à sustentabilidade no local. A ausência de caça comercial, o fato das duas espécies não serem naturalmente raras, a prática de expedições de caça de longa duração, e evidências de baixa proporção de fêmeas entre os Bugios abatidos se configuram como fatores positivos à sustentabilidade. Já os fatores que comprometem a manutenção das duas espécies na área são: a proximidade com centros urbanos e acesso a armas de fogo, o crescimento da população indígena, a baixa taxa intrínseca de crescimento natural dos primatas e a alta susceptibilidade de Bugio à caça. As previsões geradas neste estudo parecem estar corretas uma vez que é consenso entre os Guajá da comunidade Awá que há um processo de diminuição na disponibilidade de primatas, entre outras espécies de mamíferos de médio e grande porte, nos arredores do assentamento. O declínio de presas nas proximidades do assentamento tem aumentado a freqüência de retiros de caça de longa duração. Atualmente na comunidade Awá, estes retiros parecem reproduzir uma maior mobilidade existente antes do contato e conseqüente fixação. Essa dinâmica demonstra a importância do estabelecimento de Reservas Indígenas de tamanho adequado, oferecendo condições para que as comunidades assentadas possam se ajustar às flutuações locais de presas antes que o impacto local na fauna seja irreversível. / Indigenous lands have a crucial role in the preservation of Neotropical forests. In the Amazon there is clear association between indigenous land and forest cover. However, the simple presence of continuous vegetation doesn\'t guarantee the conservation of biodiversity, especially in the context where hunting is practiced. The present study analyzed hunting pressure on capuchin (Cebus apella) and howler monkeys (Alouatta belzebul) caused by Guajá indigenous people from Awá community (Maranhão sate, Brazil). The analysis was based on a set of skulls and mandibles from individual monkeys consumed at the Guajá settlement in the late 80\'s. Sustainability analyses were based on two models, the Production Model, and the Intraspecific Prey Choice. The development of the production model predicted hunting above sustainable levels for the two species, within an effective hunting area of 78,5 km2. Even with the incorporation of a source-area, which resulted in a total area of 314 km2, the model predicted unsustainable hunting for howler monkey. The Intraspecific Prey Choice analysis, done only for howler monkey, resulted in statistically significant higher proportion of males and adults in the sample than the one expected for the genus Alouatta if howler monkeys were hunted randomly. When quantitative analysis and local demographic and social-cultural factors were taken into consideration, it was possible to observe positive and negative aspects to local sustainability. The lack of marketable hunting, the fact that both species are not naturally rare, the practice of long-distance hunting, and the evidence of low proportion of howler monkey females killed, are all positive factors for sustainability. On the other hand, the proximity to urban centers, easy access to shot-guns, demographic growth of indigenous population, the low intrinsic reproductive level of howler monkeys, the high susceptibility of howler monkey to hunting, and the high proportion of adults killed, are all negative factors for sustainability. The predictions the present study generated seem to be corrected, for it is a consensus among the Guajá from Awá community that there is a current process of decreasing primate availability, among other large- and medium-sized mammals within the surrounding areas. One of the consequences of game-decrease in the proximity of the Awá settlement has been the increase in the frequency of long-distance hunting. Presently, this mobility pattern among Awá community seems to mimic pre-contact high mobility pattern. This dynamic demonstrates the importance of creating indigenous lands of adequate size that offers conditions for sustainable traditional subsistence patterns.

In recent years there have been efforts to assess associations between personality, longevity and well-being in nonhuman primates. Currently, findings indicate that, as in humans, personality traits such as extraversion are associated with both higher well-being (in monkeys and apes) and longevity (in gorillas). Why certain traits seem to have a protective effect is not yet well understood. One hypothesis is that more extraverted individuals rely on the company of others to alleviate stress, and thus mediate physiological stressors, increasing potential life span. Individual differences in social behaviour are therefore an important consideration for increasing our understanding of the protective effects of personality traits. The role of personality in social interactions and well-being is the main focus of this thesis. In Chapter 2, I assess personality and well-being in two species of New World monkey - common (Saimiri sciureus) and Bolivian squirrel monkeys (Saimiri boliviensis) - for which these associations have not previously been studied. I assess differences in personality trait structure between the two species, and compare them to a close relative, Sapajus apella (brown capuchins). I also correlate personality with well-being. Results show that both squirrel monkey species are similar in personality structure, but Bolivian squirrel monkeys share more similar traits with brown capuchins than common squirrel monkeys do. Well-being is associated with low Neuroticism and high Openness. These comparisons inform our understanding of the phylogeny of personality traits, as well as the ancestral links between personality and well-being. In Chapter 3 I focus on examining individual differences in chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) traits, through the use of previously collected personality data, which may reflect something akin to autism in nonhuman primates. In Chapter 4 I examine behavioural correlates of these traits, and assess personality in relation to behaviour. Results indicate that personality is a stronger predictor of individual differences in social behaviour than the scale measuring autism-like traits. Continuing with a focus in chimpanzees, in Chapter 5 I examine whether personality predicts how individual chimpanzees perceive emotion in conspecifics, using both behavioural and experimental data. Findings show that individuals differ in their attention and arousal in response to emotions in others, and that personality plays a role in these responses. I also report different ‘levels’ of response indicative of separate arousal and attention based processes. This is an understudied but important area of research that might help to elucidate differences in coping with stressful situations in a group environment. In Chapter 6 I shift from a focus of personality as a predictor of response, to potential signals of personality, by examining personality correlates of facial morphology in brown capuchins, Sapajus apella. Results indicate that face width is associated with higher Assertiveness, whilst lower face height is associated with higher Neuroticism/lower Attentiveness. To assess the theory that these associations may act as social cues, such as signals of status or mate quality, in Chapter 7 I assess whether capuchins perceive differences in face width of conspecifics by measuring response to facial images. Results suggest that capuchins do not differ between wide and narrow faces. I discuss the possibility that perception of these associations may be dependent on other variables such as age or knowledge of the signal receiver. Overall, this thesis takes a broad approach to understanding personality, by examining its role in social interactions, perception of others and well-being. These findings are discussed in light of both evolutionary theory and potential benefits to welfare.

The evolution of a gene’s expression profile is commonly assumed to be independent of its genomic neighborhood. This is, however, in contrast to what we know about the lack of autonomy between expression of neighboring genes in extant taxa. Indeed, in all eukaryotic genomes, genes of similar expression-profile tend to cluster, reflecting chromatin level dynamics. Does it follow that if a gene increases expression in a particular lineage then the genomic neighbors will also increase in their expression or is gene expression evolution autonomous? To address this, I consider evolution of human gene expression since the human-chimp common ancestor, allowing for both variation in estimation of current expression level and error in Bayesian estimation of the ancestral state. I find that in all tissues and both sexes, the change in gene expression of a focal gene on average predicts the change in gene expression of neighbors. The effect is highly pronounced in the immediate vicinity but extends much further. Sex-specific expression change is also genomically clustered. As genes increasing their expression in humans tend to avoid nuclear lamina domains and be enriched for the gene activator 5-hydroxymethylcytosine, chromatin level mechanisms are likely regulators of this phenomenon. Firstly established in Primates and then expanded to compacted genome of yeasts, the phenomenon of correlation in change in gene expression of the neighbouring genes I describe as “expression piggy-backing”, an analog of hitchhiking. Extending the same principle to non-coding genes I find a possible role of lincRNAs in regulating expression of their neighbours, mediated by a coupling between splicing and chromatin modification. Finally I employ insertions of human endogenous retroviruses (HERVs), as a naturally occurring transgene experiment, to find out how randomly scattered sequences would affect the expression profile of their neighboring genes. I show these retroviruses to be the focus of transcription in human ES cells and define a transcription factor, LBP9, as a novel pluripotency-associated agent. Transcription results in neighbourhood modification including the generation of chimaeric transcripts. Predictions were confirmed experimentally by collaborators.

A endocrinologia reprodutiva do muriqui do sul B. arachnoides foi avaliada em quatro fêmeas adultas pela dosagem de metabólitos fecais de estrógenos e em quatro machos adultos e um macho subadulto pela dosagem de metabólitos de testosterona e glicocorticóides durante um período de onze meses em duas diferentes condições restritivas, ilha de 600m2, Curitiba (PPC) e viveiro (15,40x5,85x4,70m) Rio de Janeiro (CPRJ). As fêmeas apresentaram grande variação individual nas concentrações de estrógenos e progestinas fecais ao longo do período de estudo, três não apresentaram atividade ovariana no período de outubro-dezembro e apenas uma apresentou atividade durante todos os períodos amostrados. Mesmo com níveis baixos de esteróides as fêmeas apresentaram comportamento perceptivo e cópulas. Os machos do PPC apresentaram níveis significativamente mais altos de glicocorticóides e níveis significativamente mais baixos de testosterona do que os machos do CPRJ (p<0,05) apresentaram. O macho subadulto apresentou níveis significativamente mais baixos para metabólitos de testosterona. Nos machos as cópulas ocorreram próximo às elevações das concentrações de testosterona. Em três situações grandes elevações dos níveis de glicocorticóides fecais puderam ser relacionadas a situações estressantes. Nosso estudo comprovou a eficácia do método empregado para monitoramento reprodutivo bem como para avaliar situações estressantes. / The reproductive endocrinology of the southern muriqui (Brachyteles. Arachnoids) was evaluated through the dosage of fecal metabolites steroids for 04 adult females and fecal metabolites of testosterone and glucocorticoids for 04 adult males and 01 subadult male. The study was conducted over an eleven month period at two environmental conditions: a) an island of 600 m2, with natural vegetation, at Curitiba Zoo (PPC) and b) a large cage of 15,40X5,85X4,70m at Rio de Janeiro Primatological Centre (CPRJ). It was observed that females had large strogen interindividual variation and fecal progestins: three females did not show ovarian activity over a partial period of the study, while ovarian activity was observed for all sample periods for one female. Despite the detection of low levels of steroids, proceptive behaviour and copulations were observed. The PPC males showed significant levels of glicorticoids and testosteorne when compared to the CPRJ males (p<0.05). The subadult male exhibited the lowest level of testosterone metabolites and those differences were significant when compared to the adult males (p<0.05). For all males, copulations occurred when testosterone levels were highest and peaks of glucorticoids were linked to stressfull situations. This study have shown that the method used was effective for reproductive monitoring as well as for evaluating stressfull situations.

A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, infulfilment of the requirements for the .degree Doctor of Philosophy Johannesburg ' 1989

Indaga sobre la presencia de anticuerpos contra Leptospira spp. en primates de vida libre del género Saguinus de la Estación Biológica Los Amigos (Madre de Dios, Perú). Se colectaron 56 muestras de sangre, de las cuales 26 pertenecían a Saguinus fuscicollis y 30 a Saguinus imperator, las cuales fueron evaluadas a través de la prueba de Microaglutinación en campo oscuro (MAT), enfrentándolas a 24 serovares agrupados en 21 serogrupos de Leptospira spp. El 51.8% (29/56) fueron positivas para al menos un serogrupo evaluado, siendo los serogrupos más frecuentes Iquitos 39.3% (22/56) e Icterohaemorrhagiae 14.28% (8/56) y los menos frecuentes Pomona 3.57% (2/56) y Autumnalis 1.78% (1/56). Además, 3 muestras reaccionaron frente a más de un serogrupo, una de ellas frente a los serogrupos Iquitos e Icterohaemorrhagiae, otra muestra contra Iquitos, Icterohaemorrhagiae y Pomona, y una tercera contra Icterohaemorrhagiae y Autumnalis. Estos resultados indican que existe exposición natural a Leptospira spp. en la población de Saguinus en el área estudiada. Consecuentemente, se podría considerar a estos primates como una posible fuente de transmisión hacia otros animales y a los humanos. / Tesis

Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) is the causative agent of the disease tuberculosis (TB). While approximately one third of the world’s population is infected with this pathogen, only a small minority of these individuals has active TB infection, where these individuals are able to transmit the pathogen to others. In previous microarrays performed in our lab from lung tissue of non-human primates (NHPs), it was noted that animals undergoing the activation of TB showed greatly increased expression of lymphocyte activation gene 3 (LAG-3). This protein performs immunomodulatory roles, which include: increased function of regulatory T cells, decreased function of Th1 effector T cells, and decreased monocyte differentiation. When studied in rhesus macaques infected with Mtb, RNA expression and protein levels of LAG-3 in lung tissue of active TB animals was found to be greatly increased when compared to lung from animals with latent TB. Interestingly enough, there was a bimodal distribution of LAG-3 expression in animals undergoing reactivation of the disease; the animals with greater levels of LAG-3 were the fast reactivators. LAG-3 expression in the lung tissue of animals with Mtb infections was mainly isolated to the outer periphery of the Mtb induced lung granuloma, where predictably, LAG-3 was expressed by lymphocyte populations of immune cells; mainly NK cells and various populations of T cells. To gain a greater understanding of the function of LAG-3, we created a co-culture system where CD4 T cells derived from blood and lung of Mtb infected NHPs were supplemented to Mtb infected differentiated monocytes. With this co-culture model, we utilized short interfering RNA (siRNA) to silence LAG-3. We observed a decreased bacterial burden, as well as decreased frequencies of IL-10 and IFN-γ producing CD4 T cells. This illustrates that the silencing of LAG-3 in CD4 T cells resulted in increased bacterial clearance, not due to up-regulation of IFN-γ. We believe that the bacterial reduction may be due to increased T cell proliferation, along with production of another proinflammatory cytokines. In the near future, we will utilize cytokine assays and microarrays to better understand the mechanism of action through which increased bacterial killing is occurring. / acase@tulane.edu