Increasingly, online social media networks allow users to use geotagging. This method of adding location data to various content shared in real time has introduced privacy related issues and threats to the users of such networks. Previous research present opposing findings on whether users actually care about their location privacy or not, and it has also been shown that users often display a behaviour inconsistent with their concerns. When asked, users tend to report high privacy concerns, but in contrast, they will then not let their privacy concerns affect or limit their behaviour online; the privacy paradox is a description of this dichotomy. The problem, however, is not only that location privacy seems to be a paradoxical issue; the sharing of location data provides users with new possibilities that can potentially have negative consequences for them, such as someone else being able to identify one’s identity, home location, habits or other sensitive information. Social media network users communicate that a part of this is due to the lack of control over which information they share, with whom and where.This study employs a qualitative method, using unstructured interviews in a pre-study and a self-completion questionnaire. The purpose of the study is to examine and gain a better understanding of how the privacy paradox can help to better explain users’ location data disclosure preferences in the context of social media networking, and to help social media network developers in order to reduce privacy-related issues in social media networking applications with geotagging capabilities. The findings indicate that the paradox indeed is evident in user’s stated geotagging behaviour, and that users are slightly more worried about their location privacy than their overall online privacy. The conclusions offer a couple of different explanations for the paradox, and we argue that the contradiction of the paradox can be seen as a constant trade-off between benefits and risks of geotagging. We also give some examples of such advantages and disadvantages.

As society progresses towards a more algorithmic era, the influence of artificial intelligence (AI) is driving a revolution in the digital landscape. At its core, AI applications aim to engage customers by providing carefully tailored and data-driven personalization and customization of products, services, and marketing mix elements. However, the adoption of AI, while promising enhanced personalization, poses challenges due to the increased collection, analysis, and control of consumer data by technology owners. Consequently, concerns over data privacy have emerged as a primary consideration for individuals. This paper delves deeper into the implications of the personalization- privacy paradox, aiming to provide a comprehensive analysis of the challenges and opportunities it presents. The purpose of this thesis is to understand users’ privacy concerns and willingness to disclose their personal information to AI technologies by addressing the limitations of previous research and utilizing qualitative methods to gain a more in-depth understanding of consumer views. To understand users’ privacy concerns and willingness to disclose personal information to AI technologies, a qualitative approach was followed. Combining a deductive and inductive approach to fulfill the purpose of the study, empirical data was collected through 20 semi- structured interviews. The participants were chosen using a purposive sampling technique. Users’ privacy concerns and willingness to disclose personal information to AI technologies differ significantly. It depends not only on the individual, but also on the type of AI technology, the company providing the AI technology, the possibility of obtaining additional benefits, and whether the company is transparent about its data collection and can provide proof of security.

Social networking sites are channels that allow companies to appeal to their target audience through personalized advertising which has become an increasingly common way for companies to reach their target customers. Personalization is possible through the use of customer data which allows designing an advertisement based on individual consumers' preferences benefiting the consumers with more personally appealing advertisements. However, the collection of the data has led to consumers’ experiencing costs from the personalization involving concerns for the safety of personal information. Because of the tension between benefits and costs of personalization, consumers' behavior has become paradoxical. The consumers’ behaviour does not always correspond to their concerns by which the consumers trade off their privacy to receive benefits from the personalization in return. With that said, this study aims to explore how the personalization privacy paradox appears in the consumers’ response to personalized advertisements on social networking sites by assessing their perception of the benefits and costs of personalized advertisements. Semi-structured interviews of eight participants lead to the main findings of this research identifying four factors that have an impact on consumers’ interaction with the advertisement; (1) simplified purchase decisions, (2) personal interest, (3) personal gain, and (4) trustworthiness. In addition, the research revealed additional findings indicating that consumers' concern for data collection could be changing from privacy risks regarding themselves to concerns about the consequence of data collection on a societal level. Furthermore, the findings show an indication for an emerging dilemma of personalized advertising for companies to overcome. Finally, this research provides implications for both academia as well as practitioners.

Digital marketing is constantly adapting and evolving in line with technological advances. One of these advances is the digitalization, which has given rise to Programmatic Advertising (PA). In order to practice PA, the companies need to collect data about consumers' preferences and personal interests. On the other hand, consumers have a need to protect their privacy. The needs of these two parties cross each other which creates the tension, called the Personalization-privacy paradox. In this study, we intend to investigate consumers' attitudes towards PA and whether personalization gives rise to improved browsing experiences or evenviolates their privacy. A quantitative study was conducted, where the independent variable was called Personalization and the dependent variables - Attractiveness, Annoyance, Invasiveness and Trade-off. The results of bivariate regression analysis showed that all of the dependent variables of the study were statistically significant. The results also illustrated that the majority of the respondents experienced PA ads as beneficial, but also invasive. These results are in line with the Utility maximization theory, as PA ads were considered both beneficial and risky. Therefore, consumers would have incentives to disclose their personal information as long as the percieved benefits would outweigh perceived risks, generated by PA. We concluded that there are no clear, predetermined answers to what attitudes consumers have towards PA, but this can vary from case to case, which is in line with both the Privacy calculus theory and the Utility maximization theory. This involves a risk-benefit analysis, performed by consumers, where perceived benefits exceeding perceived risks would generate positive attitudes and vice versa

In Essay 1, we seek to expand the insights on an individual's decision to share group content. Social networking sites (SNS) have become a ubiquitous means of socializing in the digital age. Using a survey, we collected data from 520 respondents with corporate work experience to test our research model. Our analysis highlights the complex interplay between individual and group factors that shape users' risk-benefit analysis of sharing group content on social networking sites. Furthermore, the results of this study have important implications for social networking site design and policy, particularly with regard to providing granular control over the privacy settings of group content and clear and concise information about the potential risks and benefits of sharing group content. Essay 2 aims to extend the knowledge of information security policy (ISP) compliance. Using a comprehensive approach, we extended the perspective of control mechanisms in the context of ISPs. It is evident that maintaining information security is an important concern for organizations of all sizes and industries. Organizations can establish policies and procedures to regulate and ensure compliance with information security policies, and various control mechanisms can be employed to ensure compliance. Among these control mechanisms, enforcement, punishment, evaluation, and recognition have been identified as important factors that influence information security policy compliance. In Essay 3, we delve deep into the current digital era and the reality of individuals becoming particularly vulnerable to privacy breaches. In the third essay, we offer a thorough examination of existing literature to gain insight into the disparities between users' stated privacy concerns and their actual information-sharing behavior. Our analysis reveals that, in addition to technological and environmental factors, cultural and personal differences significantly contribute to the paradoxical behavior observed among individuals. Utilizing the S-O-R (stimulus-organism-response) framework, we emphasize the necessity of examining the intricate interplay between technological aspects, individual attributes, and environmental factors in order better to understand the complexities of individuals' privacy decision-making processes. By addressing these factors and their interactions, we can develop more effective strategies to improve individuals' privacy awareness, decision-making, and overall online experiences. This will ultimately create more secure and privacy-respecting digital communities for users with various characteristics.

Social Network Site (SNS) users’ disclosed personal information is beneficial for marketers, as targeted advertising can be provided accordingly. This study identifies the three privacy concepts of concerns, attitudes and intentions, along with culture (i.e. Hofstede’s masculinity) to be key drivers of users’ self-disclosure on SNSs. Hence, this study evaluates these antecedents and their potential effect on self-disclosure, considering Facebook as the SNS of choice. To account for potential cross-cultural differences, data has been gathered via two online questionnaires, resulting in one German and one Norwegian sample of respondents. Multiple regression analyses were carried to evaluate the antecedents of self-disclosure and one-way ANOVA to examine potential differences amongst Germans and Norwegians. Results indicate that privacy intention is the strongest predictor of self-disclosure on SNSs; whereas privacy concerns and attitudes only reveal an indirect effect on self-disclosure. In addition, significant differences have been found for all of the constructs, indicating that there exist fundamental differences between Germans and Norwegians with regards to their cognitive processing behind personal information disclosure on SNSs.

The Internet of Things (IoT) has been acknowledged as one of the most innovative forms of technology since the computer, because of the influence it can have on multiple sectors of physical and virtual environments. The growth of IoT is expected to continue, by 2020 the number of connected devices is estimated to reach 50 billion. Recent developments in IoT provide an unprecedented opportunity for personalised services and other benefits. To exploit these potential benefits as best as possible, individuals are willing to provide their personal information despite potential privacy breaches. Therefore, this paper examines factors that influence the willingness to disclose personal information in the use of IoT in South Africa (SA) with the use of the privacy calculus as the theoretical underpinnings of this research. The privacy calculus accentuates that a risk-benefit trade off occurs when an individual decides to disclose their personal information, however, it is assumed that there are more factors than perceived risks and perceived benefits that influence information disclosure. After analysing previous literature, this study identified the following factors; information sensitivity, privacy concerns, social influence, perceived benefits, (perceived) privacy risks and privacy knowledge as possible key tenants in relation to willingness to disclose personal information. This research took on an objective ontological view, with the underlying epistemological stance being positivistic. The research incorporated a deductive approach, employing the use of a conceptual model which was constructed from a combination of studies orientated around privacy, the privacy calculus and the privacy paradox. Data for this research was collected using the quantitative research approach, through the use of an anonymous online questionnaire, where the targeted population was narrowed down to the general public residing within SA that make use of IoT devices and/or services. Data was collected using Qualtrics and analysed using SmartPLS 3. SmartPLS 3 was used to test for correlations between the factors which influence information disclosure in the use of IoT by utilising the complete bootstrapping method. A key finding was that the privacy paradox is apparent within SA, where individuals pursue enjoyment and predominantly use IoT for leisure purposes, while individuals are more likely to adopt self-withdrawal tendencies when faced with heightened privacy concerns or potential risks.

I den aktuella avhandlingen kommer Alphabet Inc och Facebook Inc som är två av de fem stora techbolagen som ingår i det digitala ekosystemet att analyseras. Alphabet Inc och Facebook Inc har valts ut på grund av deras affärsmodell bygger på att använda privatdata som handelsvara. Dessa företag kommer att analyseras utifrån den privacy paradox som uppstår när användare har kännedom kring deras privata integritet samtidigt som de godkänner användarvillkoren utan att läsa dessa som motstrider deras integritet. Denna studie har använt en enkätundersökning som underlag för att stödja litteratur och författarnas hypotes för att kunna svara på den givna forskningsfrågan. Resultatet visar att dessa företag använder sig av svårförståeliga, långa och komplicerade användarvillkor vilket resulterar till att användaren inte läser igenom dem. Samtidigt finns det en medvetenhet kring den privata integriteten vilket skapar en paradox då användaren ej läser avtalen. De slutsatser som kommer med arbetet är faktorerna som leder till privacy paradoxen samt dess effekter. Samtidigt som implikationer gällande konsekvenser på samhället. / In the current thesis, Alphabet Inc and Facebook Inc, which are two of the five major tech companies included in the digital ecosystem, will be analyzed. Alphabet Inc and Facebook Inc have been selected because their business model is based on using private data as a commodity. These companies will be analyzed based on the privacy paradox that arises when users have knowledge of their privacy while still agreeing to the terms of service without reading those that conflict with their privacy.  This study has used a survey as a basis to support literature and the authors hypothesis to be able to answer the given research question. The results show that these companies use language that is difficult to understand, long and complicated terms of service, which results in the user not reading through them. At the same time, there is an awareness of the privacy paradox, which creates a paradox when the user does not read the user agreements. The conclusions that come with the work are the factors that lead to the privacy paradox and its effects. At the same time as implications regarding consequences on society.

What lies beneath the surface of modern day interfaces? And what are the consequences of sharing our digital self with companies in exchange for free services? We report on a study of smartphone users in Sweden where behaviours and reactions are assessed from a critical viewpoint using the suggested method “Clear the palace”. Users express concerns regarding management of the digital self as well as showing awareness of the limitations within personalization as a result of data mining. Strategies to limit mobile overuse are discussed. The analysis is based on; Shklovski’s notions privacy paradox and creepiness and Pierce’s framework of undesigning technology. Clear the Palace as a methodology is assessed aswell as societal implications of data mining are problematized. / Vad pågår under ytan av moderna gränssnitt? Och vad är konsekvenserna av att vi delar våra digitala jag med företag i utbyte mot gratis tjänster? Vi redogör för en studie av mobilanvändare i Sverige där beteenden och reaktioner studeras ur ett kritiskt perspektiv med metoden “Röj palatset”. Användare uttrycker oro gällande hanteringen av det digitala jaget och uppvisar medvetenhet angående begränsningarna av personalisering som en följd av data mining. Strategier för att begränsa överanvändning av smartmobiler diskuteras. Analysen baseras på; Privacy Paradox, Leakiness/Creepiness enligt Shklovski och Pierce ramverk Undesigning Technology. Röj palatset som metod utvärderas och implikationer av data mining för samhället problematiseras.

Smartwatches can collect health data, location data and other sensitive information about users, and privacy concerns arise. This thesis aimed to investigate how older people (50-80 years old) in Sweden behave when it comes to privacy and health data. The data were analyzed according to the privacy paradox, which describes the discrepancy between how people behave and how they intend to behave in relation to risk and trust. The research approach was qualitative, and twelve semi-structured interviews were conducted. The interviews were coded and thematized following the chosen theory. Among the twelve participants in the study, a majority did not see, understand, or behave consciously towards the risks of sharing health data. Instead, trust was related to both the disclosure behavior and the intentional behavior among several of the participants in this study. This study indicates that for some of the participants, there are also other factors that determine their behavior, and the privacy paradox alone is not complete. Four of the findings when it comes to participants' behavior towards their health data and privacy were: trust-based decisions, lack of knowledge, low value of personal data, and value benefits more than privacy. Among several of the participants in this study, when trust towards an actor increase, the participant’s risk awareness decreases. It can be discussed whether the participants in the study value the opportunities more than the risks, and this impacts their behavior. Most of the participants think that sharing location data infringes more on their privacy than sharing health data, and self-education might be a reason the behavior and the level of privacy differ among the participants.