O aumento dos impactos ambientais devido à construção de reservatórios e barragens leva ao aumento dos riscos da infecção humana por agentes infecciosos causadores de endemias em especial as transmitidas por espécies dos moluscos de água doce, notadamente os riscos da esquistossomose mansônica. A literatura relata a distribuição geográfica de Biomphalaria tenagophila, Biomphalaria glabrata e Biomphalaria straminea presentes nas coleções hídricas de São Paulo, mostrando que uma das maiores concentrações de criadouros da espécie encontram-se no terço inicial da Bacia do Rio Tietê. No presente estudo, realizado na Represa Paraitinga (município de Salesópolis) situada na região de influência direta do Sistema Produtor do Alto Tietê (SPAT) no ano de 2009, no período de março a dezembro, foram coletados 386 moluscos, representados por 4 famílias, 1 gênero e 4 espécies, sendo 338 Biomphalaria tenagophila, 23 Lymnaea columella, 17 Physa marmorata, 7 Ampullarie sp. e 1 Drepanotrema cimex. Nenhum exemplar de B. tenagophila capturado mostrou-se positivo para Schistosoma mansoni, porém foram encontrados espécimes de B. tenagophila infestados por larvas de trematódeos identificados como Cercaria caratinguensis. As relações de determinantes ambientais analisadas foram: turbidez, cor, pH e oxigênio dissolvido. A utilização de um GPS (Global Positioning System) possibilitou a localização precisa dos locais de coleta / The increase of environmental impacts due to construction of reservoirs and dams leads to an increase in human exposure to infectious agents, that cause endemic diseases in particular those transmitted by species of freshwater snails, especially schistosomiasis mansoni. Literature shows the geographic distribution of Biomphalaria tenagophila, Biomphalaria glabrata and Biomphalaria straminea present in water collections in São Paulo, it also shows that one of the largest concentrations of breeding sites of those species are in the initial part of the Tietê Basin. The present work was carried out in Paraitinga dam (Salesópolis municipality) located in the region of direct influence of the Alto Tietê System Producer (SPAT). In 2009, from march to december, 386 specimens were collected, representing 4 families, 1 genus and 4 species, where 338 were Biomphalaria tenagophila, 23 Lymnaea columella, 17 Physa marmorata, 7 Ampullarie sp. and 1 Drepanotrema cimex. None of the captured B. tenagophila specimen was positive for Schistosoma mansoni, but some of them were infested with larval trematodes, which were identified as Cercaria caratinguensis. The relations of environmental factors examined were: turbidity, color, pH and dissolved oxygen. The use of a GPS (Global Positioning System) enabled the precise localization of the collecting site

The aim of this diploma thesis is the analysis of private labels and the consumer perception of private labels. The theoretical part is focused on brands, brand management, private labels and development at the world and the czech market. The practical part deals with research private label products and research among consumers. Based on the analysis, recommendations suggest retail chains to increase the share of private labels in total sales.

The aim of this thesis is to analyze the functioning of Fair Trade and define the main opportunities which it offers to the producers from Africa. The first chapter contains the typical features of this concept, its definition, essential principles, methods of certification, a brief historical overview and current development. It also introduces some important international organizations involved in Fair Trade. The second chapter focuses on Fair Trade in Africa. It includes the analysis of African market, SWOT analysis and definition of some important Fair Trade organizations in Africa and their main activities. The emphasis is given to Fair Trade in Africa, the utilization and distribution of Fair Trade premium, commodity structure, number of farmers involved in the concept of Fair Trade and some other factors. The last part is devoted to the cocoa industry in Africa and two major cooperatives operating in the Ivory Coast and Ghana.

Nesse trabalho objetivou-se avaliar a bioatividade de extratos brutos e suas frações, obtidos com diferentes solventes, de folhas e de ramos de plantas da família Meliaceae sobre a mosca-branca Bemisia tabaci biótipo B. Inicialmente, utilizando o extrato em diclorometano de folhas de Trichilia pallida determinou-se a concentração necessária para causar mortalidade de ninfas de 50 a 60%, sendo o valor obtido (0,56%) utilizado nos bioensaios subseqüentes. Comparando-se os extratos brutos em diclorometano de folhas e ramos de Azadirachta indica (EFAID e ERAID), Melia azedarach (EFMAD e ERMAD), Toona ciliata (EFTCD e ERTCD) e T. pallida (EFTPD e ERTPD), verificou-se que os mesmos afetam significativamente tanto ovos como ninfas da mosca-branca. Já na comparação entre os extratos brutos em etanol de folhas e ramos de A. indica (EFAIE e ERAIE), M. azedarach (EFMAE e ERMAE), T. ciliata (EFTCE e ERTCE) e T. pallida (EFTPE e ERTPE), constatou-se que os mesmos afetam apenas as ninfas. Com base nesses resultados, selecionaram-se os ERTPD, EFAIE, ERAIE, ERMAE, EFTCD e ERTCD, para os quais foi avaliado o efeito sobre a mortalidade de ovos e ninfas e o período embrionário, constatando-se que os extratos não apresentam efeito ovicida, porém afeta a sobrevivência das ninfas e que o ERAIE alonga o período embrionário do inseto. Na seqüência, através de Cromatografia Líquida a Vácuo (CLV) foram obtidas as frações em hexano, diclorometano, acetato de etila e metanol do ERTPD e do EFTCD, que foram testadas nas concentrações de 0,56 e 0,28%. As frações em diclorometano, acetato de etila e em metanol do extrato de ramos de T. pallida em diclorometano afetam a sobrevivência de ninfas da moscabranca em tomateiro, tanto a 0,56 como a 0,28%. Da mesma forma constata-se que as frações em hexano, diclorometano, acetato de etila e em metanol do extrato de folhas de T. ciliata em diclorometano afetam a sobrevivência de ninfas da mosca-branca em tomateiro, tanto a 0,56 como a 0,28%. A fração em acetato de etila do extrato de folhas de T. ciliata em diclorometano é repelente a B. tabaci biótipo B e as frações em diclorometano do ERTPD e em metanol do EFTCD apresentam efeito deterrente à oviposição de B. tabaci biótipo B. A fase de ninfa é mais sensível aos extratos orgânicos obtidos das espécies de meliácea avaliadas do que a fase de ovo. Entre os extratos testados, os mais promissores para uso no controle de ninfas da mosca-branca são os em diclorometano de folhas de T. ciliata e de ramos de T. pallida. / This work aimed to assess the bioactivity of crude extracts and their fractions obtained with different solvents, from leaves and branches from plants of Meliaceae family to the whitefly Bemisia tabaci B biotype. Initially, using the dichloromethane extract from Trichilia pallida leaves, it was determined the necessary concentration to cause 50 and 60% of nymphal mortality, being the value obtained (0.56%) utilized on the subsequent bioassays. Comparing the dichloromethane crude extracts from leaves and branches of Azadirachta indica (ELAID and EBAID), Melia azedarach (ELMAD and EBMAD), Toona ciliata (ELTCD and EBTCD) and T. pallida (ELTPD and EBTPD), it was verified that they significantly affect eggs as well as nymphs of the whitefly. Whereas the ethanol crude extracts from leaves and branches of A. indica (ELAIE and EBAIE), M. azedarach (ELMAE and EBMAE), T. ciliata (ELTCE and EBTCE) and T. pallida (ELTPE and EBTPE) affected only the nymphs. Based on these results, EBTPD, ELAIE, EBAIE, EBMAE, ELTCD and EBTCD were selected to be evaluated regarding to the effects on the eggs, nymphs and the duration of the embryonic period. It was verified that these extracts dont present ovicidal effect, although they affect nymphal survivorship, and EBAIE increases the embryonic period of the insect. Afterwards, using vacuum liquid chromatography (VLC) it was obtained the hexane, dichloromethane, ethyl acetate and methanol fractions from EBTPD and ELTCD, which were tested at concentrations of 0.56 and 0.28%. The dichloromethane, ethyl acetate and methanol fractions from EBTPD affect the whitefly nymphal survivorship at 0.56 as well as 0.28%. Similarly, the hexane, dichloromethane, ethyl acetate and methanol fractions from ELTCD affect the whitefly nymphal survivorship, at both concentrations of 0.56 and 0.28%. The ethyl acetate fraction from ELTCD is repellent to B. tabaci B biotype while the dichloromethane fractions from EBTPD and methanol from ELTCD present deterrent effect on the oviposition of this pest. The nymphal phase is more sensitive to organic extracts obtained from the Meliacea species tested than the egg phase. Among the tested extracts, the more promising to use for the control of whitefly nymphs are the dicholomethane from T. ciliata leaves and T. pallida branches.

O aumento dos impactos ambientais devido à construção de reservatórios e barragens leva ao aumento dos riscos da infecção humana por agentes infecciosos causadores de endemias em especial as transmitidas por espécies dos moluscos de água doce, notadamente os riscos da esquistossomose mansônica. A literatura relata a distribuição geográfica de Biomphalaria tenagophila, Biomphalaria glabrata e Biomphalaria straminea presentes nas coleções hídricas de São Paulo, mostrando que uma das maiores concentrações de criadouros da espécie encontram-se no terço inicial da Bacia do Rio Tietê. No presente estudo, realizado na Represa Paraitinga (município de Salesópolis) situada na região de influência direta do Sistema Produtor do Alto Tietê (SPAT) no ano de 2009, no período de março a dezembro, foram coletados 386 moluscos, representados por 4 famílias, 1 gênero e 4 espécies, sendo 338 Biomphalaria tenagophila, 23 Lymnaea columella, 17 Physa marmorata, 7 Ampullarie sp. e 1 Drepanotrema cimex. Nenhum exemplar de B. tenagophila capturado mostrou-se positivo para Schistosoma mansoni, porém foram encontrados espécimes de B. tenagophila infestados por larvas de trematódeos identificados como Cercaria caratinguensis. As relações de determinantes ambientais analisadas foram: turbidez, cor, pH e oxigênio dissolvido. A utilização de um GPS (Global Positioning System) possibilitou a localização precisa dos locais de coleta / The increase of environmental impacts due to construction of reservoirs and dams leads to an increase in human exposure to infectious agents, that cause endemic diseases in particular those transmitted by species of freshwater snails, especially schistosomiasis mansoni. Literature shows the geographic distribution of Biomphalaria tenagophila, Biomphalaria glabrata and Biomphalaria straminea present in water collections in São Paulo, it also shows that one of the largest concentrations of breeding sites of those species are in the initial part of the Tietê Basin. The present work was carried out in Paraitinga dam (Salesópolis municipality) located in the region of direct influence of the Alto Tietê System Producer (SPAT). In 2009, from march to december, 386 specimens were collected, representing 4 families, 1 genus and 4 species, where 338 were Biomphalaria tenagophila, 23 Lymnaea columella, 17 Physa marmorata, 7 Ampullarie sp. and 1 Drepanotrema cimex. None of the captured B. tenagophila specimen was positive for Schistosoma mansoni, but some of them were infested with larval trematodes, which were identified as Cercaria caratinguensis. The relations of environmental factors examined were: turbidity, color, pH and dissolved oxygen. The use of a GPS (Global Positioning System) enabled the precise localization of the collecting site

Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-28T14:59:48Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2006-Tania de Franca Padilha.pdf: 1589480 bytes, checksum: 1d4ae57709d8ab2cb5c7b40f7970a4cb (MD5) Previous issue date: 2006-04-27 / The work carried out at the Southwestern region, covering Espirito Santo, Minas Gerais, S?o Paulo and Rio de Janeiro states, aiming to describe dairy farmes and their production systems. A field research was made based upon forms distributed among the farmers. Results envolving a social approach were: the proprietors are married, more than 51 years old , more than 10 years in the activity, live at the farm, have a low level of formal education (scholarship), have electrical power and use their family as a team work. A worrifying aspect observed was a low participation of their sons in the activity. Under a technical approach it was observed: low milk production was manly based on pastures with low fertilizers and feed utilization. More than 90% have land proriety certicates, bulk milk tank an use bulk transportion. Cooperative and Farmers Associations have a major role in technical assistance, but the work showed they are still ineffcient since there is no staff enough to attend every farmers. / O trabalho foi realizado na Regi?o Sudeste do Brasil (Esp?rito Santo, Minas Gerais, S?o Paulo e Rio de Janeiro). O objetivo foi a caracteriza??o do produtor leiteiro e de seu sistema de produ??o na regi?o sudeste do Brasil. Para tanto foi realizada uma pesquisa de campo atrav?s de question?rios aplicados a produtores leiteiros nos estados da regi?o sudeste do Brasil. Os resultados obtidos relacionados ? caracteriza??o do produtor leiteiro identificaram em rela??o aos aspectos sociais que os Produtores Leiteiros em sua maioria s?o casados, apresentam mais de 51 anos de idade, com baixo n?vel de escolaridade, tendo mais de dez anos de experi?ncia na atividade, residindo na propriedade, com acesso a energia el?trica, e desenvolvem atividade de natureza familiar. Uma situa??o preocupante observada neste estudo ? a baixa participa??o dos filhos dos produtores na atividade. No aspecto de suas produ??es apresentam baixa produtividade (890 litros de leite/ha/ano), a qual pode ser reflexo da baixa produtividade animal (inferior a 2000 litros/lacta??o) bem como do baixo emprego de tecnologias tais como o uso de insemina??o artificial, suplementa??o adequada no per?odo de seca, controle zoot?cnico do rebanho, predominando o sistema de produ??o de leite a pasto, com baixa ado??o de insumos. Mais de 90% deles det?m posse de sua terra, possuem o tanque de expans?o e o transporte do leite granelizado. As Associa??es, Cooperativas e Latic?nios desempenham papel importante no que diz respeito ao fornecimento de assist?ncia t?cnica porem, o estudo mostrou que ainda s?o ineficientes neste aspecto uma vez que n?o s?o capazes de atender a todos os produtores.

Thesis (M. Dev.) -- University of the North, 2004 / Refer to document

Die Ökosysteme unserer Erde sind durch das rasante Artensterben infolge von Umweltveränderungen durch den Menschen und des globalen Klimawandels stark betroffen. Mit den Auswirkungen dieses Artenverlustes und der damit einhergehenden Veränderung der Diversität beschäftigt sich die heutige Biodiversitätsforschung. Spezieller wird der Effekt der Diversität auf Ökosystemprozesse wie beispielsweise den Biomasseaufbau von Primärproduzenten oder der Resistenz einer Gemeinschaft gegen die Einwanderung neuer Arten untersucht. Die Quantifizierung des Einflusses der Diversität auf die Primärproduktion und das Verständnis der zugrunde liegenden Mechanismen ist von besonderer Wichtigkeit. In terrestrischen Pflanzengemeinschaften wurde bereits ein positiver Diversitätseffekt auf die Gemeinschaftsbiomasse beobachtet. Dies wird hauptsächlich durch den Komplementaritäts- und/oder den Dominanzeffekt erklärt. Die Komplementarität zwischen Arten ist beispielsweise bei Unterschieden in der Ressourcenausnutzung gegeben (z.B. unterschiedliche Wurzeltiefen). Diese kann zu einer besseren Nährstoffausnutzung in diverseren Gemeinschaften führen, die letztlich deren höhere Biomassen erklärt. Der Dominanzeffekt hingegen beruht auf der in diverseren Gemeinschaften höheren Wahrscheinlichkeit, eine hochproduktive Art anzutreffen, was letztlich die höhere Biomasse der Gemeinschaft verursacht. Diversitätseffekte auf Ökosystemprozesse wurden bisher hauptsächlich auf der Gemeinschaftsebene untersucht. Analysen über die Reaktionen, die alle Arten einer Gemeinschaft einschließen, fehlen bisher. Daher wurde der Einfluss der Diversität auf die individuelle Performance von Pflanzenarten innerhalb des Biodiversitätsprojektes „Das Jena Experiment“ untersucht. Dieses Experiment umfasst 60 Arten, die charakteristisch für Mitteleuropäische Graslandschaften sind. Die Arten wurden in die 4 funktionellen Gruppen Gräser, kleine Kräuter, große Kräuter und Leguminosen eingeteilt. Im Freilandversuch zeigte sich, dass mit steigender Artenzahl die individuelle Pflanzenhöhe zunahm, während die individuelle oberirdische Biomasse sank. Der positive Diversitätseffekt auf die pflanzliche Gemeinschaftsbiomasse kann folglich nicht auf der individuellen oberirdischen Biomassezunahme beruhen. Überdies reagierten die einzelnen funktionellen Gruppen und sogar die einzelnen Arten innerhalb einer funktionellen Gruppe unterschiedlich auf Diversitätsveränderungen. Folglich ist zu vermuten, dass einige Ökosystemprozesse auf Gemeinschaftsebene durch die Reaktionen von bestimmten funktionellen Gruppen bzw. Arten hervorgerufen werden. Diversitätseffekte auf Gemeinschaftsbiomassen wurden bislang hauptsächlich mit terrestrischen Pflanzen und weniger mit frei-schwebenden Algenarten (Phytoplankton) erforscht. Demzufolge wurde der Einfluss der Diversität auf die Biomasse von Phytoplankton-Gemeinschaften experimentell untersucht, wobei es sowohl zu negativen als auch positiven Diversitätseffekten kam. Eine negative Beziehung zwischen Diversität und Gemeinschaftsbiomasse zeigte sich, wenn schnell-wüchsige Algenarten nur geringe Biomassen in Mono- und Mischkultur aufbauten. Die vorhandenen Nährstoffe in der Mischkultur wurden von den schnell-wüchsigen Arten monopolisiert und folglich standen sie den langsam-wüchsigen Algenarten, welche viel Biomasse in Monokultur aufbauten, nicht mehr zur Verfügung. Zu einem positiven Diversitätseffekt auf die Gemeinschaftsbiomasse kam es, wenn die Artengemeinschaft eine positive Beziehung zwischen Wachstumsrate und Biomasse in Monokultur zeigte, sodass die schnell-wüchsige Algenarten viel Biomasse aufbauten. Da diese schnell-wüchsigen Algen in der Mischkultur dominant wurden, bestand die Gemeinschaft letztlich aus hoch-produktiven Algenarten, was zu einer erhöhten Gesamtbiomasse führte. Diese beiden Versuchsansätze verdeutlichen Mechanismen für die unterschiedlichen Reaktionen der Gemeinschaften auf Diversitätsveränderungen, welche auch für terrestrische Pflanzengemeinschaften gefunden wurden. Ein anderer wichtiger Ökosystemprozess, der von der Diversität beeinflusst wird, ist die Anfälligkeit von Gemeinschaften gegenüber invasiven Arten (Invasibilität). Die Invasibilität wird von einer Vielzahl von Faktoren beeinflusst und demzufolge wurde der Effekt der Diversität und der Produktivität (Nährstoffgehalt) auf die Invasibilität von Phytoplankton-Gemeinschaften in An- und Abwesenheit eines Herbivoren untersucht. Die zwei funktionell unterschiedlichen invasiven Arten waren die Blaualge Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii (schlecht fressbar) und der Phytoflagellat Cryptomonas sp. (gut fressbar). Es zeigte sich, dass der Fraßdruck, welcher selber durch die Produktivität beeinflusst wurde, einen bedeutenden Effekt auf die Invasibilität von Phytoplankton-Gemeinschaften hat. Die funktionellen Eigenschaften der invasiven und residenten Arten waren zudem bedeutender als die Artenzahl. / To date, positive relationships between diversity and community biomass have been mainly found, especially in terrestrial ecosystems due to the complementarity and/or dominance effect. In this thesis, the effect of diversity on the performance of terrestrial plant and phytoplankton communities was investigated to get a better understanding of the underlying mechanisms in the biodiversity-ecosystem functioning context. In a large grassland biodiversity experiment, the Jena Experiment, the effect of community diversity on the individual plant performance was investigated for all species. The species pool consisted of 60 plant species belonging to 4 functional groups (grasses, small herbs, tall herbs, legumes). The experiment included 82 large plots which differed in species richness (1-60), functional richness (1-4), and community composition. Individual plant height increased with increasing species richness suggesting stronger competition for light in more diverse communities. The aboveground biomass of the individual plants decreased with increasing species richness indicating stronger competition in more species-rich communities. Moreover, in more species-rich communities plant individuals were less likely to flower out and had fewer inflorescences which may be resulting from a trade-off between resource allocation to vegetative height growth and to reproduction. Responses to changing species richness differed strongly between functional groups and between species of similar functional groups. To conclude, individual plant performance can largely depend on the diversity of the surrounding community. Positive diversity effects on biomass have been mainly found for substrate-bound plant communities. Therefore, the effect of diversity on the community biomass of phytoplankton was studied using microcosms. The communities consisted of 8 algal species belonging to 4 functional groups (green algae, diatoms, cyanobacteria, phytoflagellates) and were grown at different functional richness levels (1-4). Functional richness and community biomass were negatively correlated and all community biomasses were lower than their average monoculture biomasses of the component species, revealing community underyielding. This was mainly caused by the dominance of a fast-growing species which built up low biomasses in monoculture and mixture. A trade-off between biomass and growth rate in monoculture was found for all species, and thus fast-growing species built up low biomasses and slow-growing species reached high biomasses in monoculture. As the fast-growing, low-productive species monopolised nutrients in the mixtures, they became the dominant species resulting in the observed community underyielding. These findings suggest community overyielding when biomasses of the component species are positively correlated with their growth rates in monocultures. Aquatic microcosm experiments with an extensive design were performed to get a broad range of community responses. The phytoplankton communities differed in species diversity (1, 2, 4, 8, and 12), functional diversity (1, 2, 3, and 4) and community composition. The species/functional diversity positively affected community biomass, revealing overyielding in most of the communities. This was mainly caused by a positive complementarity effect which can be attributed to resource use complementarity and/or facilitative interaction among the species. Overyielding of more diverse communities occurred when the biomass of the component species was correlated positively with their growth rates in monoculture and thus, fast-growing and high-productive species were dominant in mixtures. This and the study mentioned above generated an emergent pattern for community overyielding and underyielding from the relationship between biomass and growth rate in monoculture as long as the initial community structure prevailed. Invasive species can largely affect ecosystem processes, whereas invasion is also influenced by diversity. To date, studies revealed negative and positive diversity effects on the invasibility (susceptibility of a community to the invasion by new species). The effect of productivity (nutrient concentration ranging from 10 to 640 µg P L-1), herbivory (presence/absence of the generalist feeder) and diversity (3, 4, 6 species were randomly chosen from the resident species pool) on the invasibility of phytoplankton communities consisting of 10 resident species was investigated using semi-continuous microcosms. Two functionally diverse invaders were chosen: the filamentous and less-edible cynaobacterium C. raciborskii and the unicellular and well-edible phytoflagellate Cryptomonas sp. The phytoflagellate indirectly benefited from grazing pressure of herbivores whereas C. raciborskii suffered more from it. Diversity did not affect the invasibility of the phytoplankton communities. Rather, it was strongly influenced by the functional traits of the resident and invasive species.

This thesis consists of five papers, four of them basically concerning environmental issues, while the fifth paper addresses the issue of measuring output from the educational sector. The first paper starts from the fact that industrial activity causes environmental damage. Therefore, public authorities are called upon to regulate the behavior of producers by, e.g., legislating maximally allowed emission levels, which give rise to abatement costs. In this paper, marginal abatement costs (MACs) are estimated and a procedure to empirically analyze why MACs may vary between producers is suggested. The main focus is on whether the MACs in the Swedish pulp industry reveal that differences between counties in, e.g., economical characteristics, were influential when the authority, during 1983-1990, restricted 12 geographically scattered plants regarding emissions. The result indicates that county differences were influential. The second paper analyses and suggests a procedure for testing the Porter hypothesis. Part of this hypothesis is based on the argument that increased environmental stringency not only brings a cleaner environment, but also makes the polluting producers aware of the opportunity of using resources more efficiently. The particular test suggested considers whether there is a positive correlation between producers’ technical output efficiency and environmental stringency, approximated by a regulatory intensity index. It is empirically applied on 12 Swedish pulp plants during 1983-1990. No support for the Porter hypothesis is found in this particular case. The third paper deals with the climate policy issue. Under the Kyoto Protocol, the European Union agreed to reduce its emission of greenhouse gases by 8 percent in comparison with the level in 1990. The Burden-Sharing Agreement (BSA) further redistributes the 8 percent reduction target among the member states. This paper evaluates the BSA both from an economical and a political perspective, i.e., whether cost-efficiency and equity, respectively, were considered when the BSA was settled. The empirical result indicates that both efficiency and equity were considered as important to the BSA. The fourth paper evaluates the Swedish Producer Responsibility Ordinance (PRO), fully implemented in 1994, which states that sorted out, domestically collected waste paper, must be recycled by the paper industry and, therefore, cannot be incinerated by the heating industry in purpose of recovering energy. The result indicates that this policy has contributed to inefficient waste paper allocation among some of the paper producers. The result further indicates that the priority made by the PRO, i.e., that waste paper recycling is preferable to incineration, should be reconsidered. The fifth paper relates the empirical attempts of measuring output from the educational sector to theoretical results about the welfare significance of a comprehensive Net National Product (NNP) measure. It is shown that economic theory provides a more focused way of interpreting such output estimates. The paper also contains estimates of the output from the Swedish educational sector. Among the results, it is shown that the private gross output value produced by higher education is approximately 2 percent of GDP. Furthermore, the private rate of return on investments in higher education in Sweden is calculated to 8.6 percent.

Denna studie utreder hur reklamfilmsproducenter anpassar sina produktioner för att de ska vara effektiva på en allt mer konkurrensintensiv reklammarknad. Enligt radio- och TV-lagen får svenska TV-kanaler idag sända tolv minuter reklam per timme, samma regler som gäller för till exempel TV3, Kanal 5 och TV6 som sänder från Storbritannien. Studien utgår från en förstudie av den svenska TV-reklammarknaden där det bland annat observerades att den totala reklamtiden, inklusive reklam för kanalens egna program,i ett fall uppgick till hela 26 procent av den totala sändningstiden. För annonsörer och reklaminköpare kan den ökade mängden reklam innebära ett försämrat genomslag och ökade kostnader för att nå ut med sitt budskap till samma mängd mottagare som för några år sedan. Det bidrar dessutom till allmänhetens allt mer negativa inställning, och till att en stor del av tittarna helt undviker TV-reklamen. För att besvara frågeställningen har fem intervjuer med reklamfilmsproducenter från olika svenska produktionsbyråer genomförts. Intervjusvaren analyserades med hjälp av relevanta teorier, om bland annat marknadsföring och filmproduktion, som valdes utifrån det insamlade datamaterialet. Analysen resulterade i ett antal slutsatser och rekommendationer för hur reklamfilmsproducenter kan arbeta för att möta den ökade mängden TV-reklam. Några av de viktigaste slutsatserna var att reklamfilmsproducenterna bör planera filmernas dramaturgiska uppbyggnad så att tittarnas uppmärksamhet snabbt fångas och därefter bibehålls, att väcka känslor hos tittarna för att lämna en eftertanke, samt att sända reklamfilmen ofta och komplettera med annonsering i fler medier för ökat genomslag. / This study investigates how producers of TV commercials adapt their productions to be effective in an increasingly competitive advertising market. According to the Radio and Television Act, the Swedish TV channels are now allowed to air twelve minutes of advertising per hour, the same rules which apply to such channels as TV3, Kanal 5 and TV6 broadcasting from the UK. The study is based on a preliminary study of the Swedish TV advertising market, in which the total advertising time, including advertisements for the channel’s own programs, was observed. In one case the total advertising time amounted to 26 percent of the total broadcasting time. The increased amount of advertising might result in poor advertising impact and increased costs for advertisers and advertising buyers to reach the same amount of viewers as before. It also contributes to the public’s increasingly negative attitude, and the increased avoidance of TV commercials. To answer the question statement, five interviews with producers of TV commercials from different Swedish production agencies were conducted. The interview responses were analyzed using relevant theories about marketing and film production that were chosen based on the collected set of data. The analysis resulted in a number of conclusions and recommendations for how to handle the increased amount of television advertising. Some of the key conclusions was that producers of TV commercials should plan the dramaturgic structure so that the viewer’s attention is quickly captured and thereafter maintained, to evoke the viewer’s emotions, to air the commercial frequently and supplement with advertising in other media to increase impact.