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Putting ostracism into perspective: young children tell more mentalistic stories after exclusion, but not when anxiousWhite, Lars O., Klein, Annette M., von Klitzing, Kai, Graneist, Alice, Otto, Yvonne, Hill, Jonathan, Over, Harriet, Fonagy, Peter, Crowley, Michael J. January 2016 (has links)
Much is known about when children acquire an understanding of mental states, but few, if any, experiments identify social contexts in which children tend to use this capacity and dispositions that influence its usage. Social exclusion is a common situation that compels us to reconnect with new parties, which may crucially involve attending to
those parties’ mental states. Across two studies, this line of inquiry was extended to typically developing preschoolers (Study 1) and young children with and without anxiety disorder (AD) (Study 2). Children played the virtual game of toss “Cyberball” ostensibly over the Internet with two peers who first played fair (inclusion), but eventually threw very few balls to the child (exclusion). Before and after Cyberball, children in both studies completed stories about peer-scenarios. For Study 1, 36 typically developing 5-year-olds were randomly assigned to regular exclusion (for no apparent reason) or accidental exclusion (due to an alleged computer malfunction). Compared to accidental exclusion, regular exclusion led children to portray story-characters more strongly as intentional agents (intentionality), with use of more mental state language (MSL), and more between-character affiliation in post-Cyberball stories. For Study 2, 20 clinically referred 4 to 8-year-olds with AD and 15 age- and gender-matched non-anxious controls completed stories before and after regular exclusion. While we replicated the post regular-exclusion increase of intentional and MSL portrayals of story-characters among non-anxious controls, anxious children exhibited a decline on both dimensions after regular exclusion. We conclude that exclusion typically induces young children to mentalize, enabling more effective reconnection with others. However, excessive anxiety may impair controlled mentalizing, which may, in turn, hamper effective reconnection with others after exclusion.
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Endogenous Constructivist Implications for Methodology : Focus on Young Children with Developmental Delay in the Social and Emotional DomainsMcCrary, Donna E. (Donna Evelyn) 12 1900 (has links)
The Ecologically-Based Activity Plan (EBAP) is proposed as a method to create a transition between special education and general education. It serves as a tool to help classroom teachers assess the environment of the class and as a method for embedding instruction within the naturally occurring context of the endogenous constructivist classroom. In this study the EBAP was used to reduce aggressive behavior and increase prosocial behavior among five children who displayed developmental delays in the social and emotional domains.
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Making a Decision to Retreat, Relate, or Retaliate: An Examination of Theoretical Predictors of Behavioral Responses to Bullying in a High School SettingStubbs-Richardson, Megan Suzanne 14 December 2018 (has links)
The purpose of this dissertation is to extend General Strain Theory (GST) to examine prosocial, asocial, and antisocial behavior in response to bullying. In GST, Agnew (1992; 2001; 2013) asserted that negative emotions can lead to criminal or aggressive coping but there are a number of factors that increase or decrease the propensity to respond aggressively (Agnew, 1992; Richman & Leary, 2009). In this dissertation, I examine whether and how rejection (operationalized as bullying victimization) is associated with aggressive responding as opposed to prosocial (e.g., befriending others) or asocial (e.g., avoiding people and social events) responding. This dissertation consists of three studies testing theoretical variables of bullying victimization as well as behavioral responses to four types of bullying: physical, verbal, relational, and cyber. Study 1 of this dissertation examines risk and protective factors for types of bullying victimization. Study 2 applies GST to test the effect of social support, or the availability of alternative relationships (i.e., having others to count on or turn to for social support), on responses to four types of bullying. Study 3 tests the effect of power dynamics on responses to physical and relational bullying. In conducting this research, I hope to: 1) integrate interdisciplinary bodies of literature to examine risk and protective factors of bullying victimization and behavioral responses to bullying and 2) improve understanding of how these experiences are affected by the power dynamics involved in bullying. Overall, the results of this dissertation suggest that types of negative emotions and behavioral outcomes vary by type of bullying victimization. Cyber bullying was found to have more negative consequences than any other form of bullying. Across all four forms of bullying, social support was found to be associated with an increased likelihood of youth engaging in prosocial behavior. Implicit power, or the perception that one’s bully has a high social standing at school, significantly influenced responses based on the type of bullying. However, even when controlling for power dynamics, social support was still associated with increased prosocial behavior in response to bullying victimization. Theory and policy implications are discussed.
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Sibling Relationships, Stress, and Well-Being During Early AdolescenceVan Langeveld, Alisa Danielle Cox 12 August 2010 (has links) (PDF)
This study examined whether the quality of the sibling relationship can alter the negative impact of stress on child well being. Participants were of 311 families (236 two parent families and 75 single parent families) with an adolescent child (M age of child at Time 1 = 11.25, SD = .99, 51% female) who took part in the Flourishing Families Project. Data were assessed using both a multiple time point cross-section and a two wave longitudinal design. Hierarchal linear regression suggested that when assessing the direct effects of sibling on well being, sibling affection is a better predictor of well being, but when assessing indirect effects, sibling conflict is a better predictor. Little evidence was found to support the idea that siblings moderate the impact of stress by buffering or decreasing the negative impact of stress. Results did indicate that sibling conflict was a salient moderator of stress in that conflict exacerbates the already negative impact of stress. Results from this study also suggest that when assessing the buffering or exacerbating impact of siblings, cross-sectional data produces better explanatory power than when these constructs are assessed longitudinally. However a single time point, cross-sectional design does not account for dynamic changes over time in either the sibling relationship, the level of stress or well being. Research designs such as multiple time, point cross-sectional studies or growth curve analyses are recommended.
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Daily Use of Energy Management Strategies and Occupational Well-being: The Moderating Role of Job DemandsParker, Stacey L., Zacher, Hannes, de Bloom, Jessica, Verton, Thomas M., Lentink, Corine R. 05 April 2023 (has links)
We examine the relationships among employees’ use of energy management strategies and two occupational well-being outcomes: job satisfaction and emotional exhaustion. Based on conservation of resources theory, it was hypothesized that employees with high job demands would benefit more from using energy management strategies (i.e., including prosocial, organizing, and meaning-related strategies), compared to employees with low job demands. We tested this proposition using a quantitative diary study. Fifty-four employees provided data twice daily across one work week (on average, 7 daily entries). Supporting the hypotheses, prosocial energy management was positively related to job satisfaction. Moreover, employees with high job demands were less emotionally exhausted when using prosocial strategies. Contrary to predictions, when using organizing strategies, employees with low job demands had higher job satisfaction and lower emotional exhaustion. Under high job demands, greater use of organizing strategies was associated with lower job satisfaction and higher emotional exhaustion. Finally, use of meaning-related strategies was associated with higher emotional exhaustion when job demands were low. With this research, we position energy management as part of a resource investment process aimed at maintaining and improving occupational well-being. Our findings show that this resource investment will be more or less effective depending on the type of strategy used and the existing drain on resources (i.e., job demands). This is the first study to examine momentary effects of distinct types of work-related energy management strategies on occupational well-being.
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Gemischte moralische Emotionen bei Grundschulkindern und ihre entwicklungsadäquate ErfassungMöller, Anne Mareike 30 November 2022 (has links)
Vor dem Hintergrund der Bedeutung moralischer Emotionen für moralisches und prosoziales Verhalten geht die vorliegende Studie der Fragestellung nach, wie sich gemischte moralische Emotionen entwickeln und wie diese mit dem Emotionswissen zusammenhängen. Darüber hinaus soll die Frage fokussiert werden, wie moralische Emotionen entwicklungsadäquat erfasst werden können.
Es wurde vermutet, dass 8- und 10-Jährige häufiger gemischte moralische Emotionen zuschreiben als 6- Jährige und dass gemischte moralische Emotionen mit einem ausgeprägten Emotionswissen zusammenhängen. Außerdem wurde vermutet, dass berichtete negative Emotionen mit beobachteten negativen Gesichtsreaktionen zusammenhängen und ältere Kinder im Kontext moralischer Konfliktsituationen stärkere negative Gesichtsausdrücke zeigen als jüngere Kinder.
Um diese Hypothesen zu prüfen, wurden 96 Grundschulkinder (N = 96) im Alter von 5 bis 10 Jahren interviewt. Zur Erfassung moralischer Emotionen wurde das Happy-Victimizer-Interview mit vier verschiedenen Vignetten eingesetzt (Schubsen, Stehlen, Versprechen brechen und Mogeln). Das Interview wurde videografiert und inhaltsanalytisch ausgewertet. Zusätzlich wurden die Mikroausdrücke der Kinder während des Interviews mit der FaceReader-Software (FaceReader 8.0) hinsichtlich der Intensität der Basisemotionen (Ekman, Friesen, & Hager, 2002) analysiert. Die moralischen Emotionen und Begründungen wurden einem Kategoriensystem zugeordnet und anschließend quantifiziert. Die Hypothesentestungen der Zusammenhänge erfolgten angepasst an das Skalenniveau mittels Chi-Quadrattest und Korrelationsanalysen.
Erwartungskonform zeigen die Ergebnisse einen signifikanten Zusammenhang zwischen dem Alter der Versuchspersonen und dem Berichten gemischter moralischer Emotionen. 8-Jährige berichteten häufiger gemischte moralische Emotionen als 6-Jährige. Kinder, die gemischte moralische Emotionen benannten, verfügten zudem über ein signifikant höheres Emotionswissen. Erwartungswidrig berichteten 10-Jährige nicht mehr gemischte moralische Emotionen als 8-Jährige.
Hinsichtlich der spontanen affektiven Reaktionen konnte in einer Konfliktsituation ein signifikanter Zusammenhang zwischen berichteten negativen Emotionen und spontanen Angstreaktionen gefunden werden. Außerdem fanden sich bei älteren Kindern in einer physischen Gewaltsituation signifikant höhere Ekelreaktionen im Gesicht. Es zeigten sich darüber hinaus keine weiteren Zusammenhänge zwischen berichteten Emotionen und spontanen affektiven Gesichtsreaktionen.
Die Ergebnisse hinsichtlich der spontanen affektiven Reaktionen könnten auf einen Zusammenhang zwischen berichteten und spontanen Emotionen hindeuten, sollten aber aus verschiedenen Gründen vorsichtig betrachtet werden. Methodische Aspekte, Limitationen und die Bedeutung der Ergebnisse für die entwicklungsadäquate Erfassung moralischer Emotionen werden diskutiert.
Im Hinblick auf das Entwicklungsmodell moralischer Emotionen konnte die Studie einen ersten Hinweis liefern, dass gemischte moralische Emotionen ab einem Alter von 8 Jahren auftreten. Da die Kinder in der Lage sind, verschiedene Perspektiven zu koordinieren, könnte dies als Vorläufer von Reziprozität und Fairness und damit für eine hohe moralische Kompetenz sprechen. Der gefundene Zusammenhang zwischen den gemischten moralischen Emotionen und dem Emotionswissen könnte einen vorsichtigen Hinweis darauf liefern, dass schulische Förderprogramme, die Emotionswissen befördern, möglicherweise einen positiven Effekt auf die Entwicklung der moralischen Emotionen nehmen könnten.:Abstract 2
Kurzzusammenfassung 3
Inhalt 5
I Einleitung 9
II Theorieteil 12
1 Determinanten moralischen Handelns: Zum Zusammenspiel von Kognition und Emotion 12
2 Moralische Emotionen 18
2.1 Emotion und Handlung aus Perspektive der Emotionsforschung 19
2.2 Modell moralischer Emotionen 21
2.2.1 Ereignis 21
2.2.2 Bewertungsprozesse 22
2.2.3 Aufmerksamkeit, physiologische und faziale Reaktionen 23
2.2.4 Motive 25
2.2.5 Motivdienliches Verhalten 26
2.3 Kategorisierung moralischer Emotionen 27
2.3.1 Die Orientation-Valence Taxonomie 28
2.3.2 Schuld und Scham als negative moralische Emotionen 28
2.3.3 Moralischer Stolz 30
2.3.4 Other-oriented moral emotions 31
2.4 Moralische Emotionen und moralisches Handeln 32
2.4.1 Kategorisierung moralisch relevanter Verhaltensweisen 33
2.4.2 Moralische Emotionen und antisoziales beziehungsweise delinquentes Verhalten 34
2.4.3 Moralische Emotionen und prosoziales Verhalten 36
3 Entwicklung moralischer Emotionen 37
3.1 Entwicklung moralischer Emotionen im Kleinkindalter (Vorläuferemotionen) 38
3.2 Entwicklung moralischer Emotionen im Kontext von moralischen Konfliktsituationen 39
3.2.1 Das Happy-Victimizer-Phänomen 39
3.2.2 Kontextfaktoren 40
3.3 Entwicklungsmodell moralischer Emotionen in der Kindheit 43
3.4 Gemischte moralische Emotionen 46
4 Entwicklungsbedingte Voraussetzungen für das Verständnis gemischter Emotionen 49
4.1 Die Entwicklung des kindlichen Emotionsverständnisses 50
4.2 Konzeptualisierung und Erfassung gemischter Emotionen 51
4.3 Entwicklung gemischter Emotionen im Kindesalter 54
5 Methodische Begrenzungen bei der Erfassung moralischer Emotionen im Rahmen des Happy-Victimizer-Paradigmas 57
6 Zusammenfassung und Herleitung der Hypothesen und Fragestellungen 60
6.1 Fragestellung und Hypothesen bezogen auf die Entwicklung gemischter moralischer Emotionen 60
6.2 Fragestellung und Hypothesen bezogen auf die methodischen Zugänge zur Erfassung von moralischen Emotionen 66
III Methode 67
7 Design 67
8 Stichprobe 69
9 Instrumentenentwicklung 70
9.1 Interview 71
9.1.1 Vorüberlegungen 71
9.1.2 Vignettenentwicklung und Pilotierung 72
9.1.3 Interviewleitfaden 74
9.2 Verhaltensbeobachtung 77
9.2.1 Vorüberlegungen 77
9.2.2 Affektive Gesichtsreaktionen 77
9.2.3 Stimulusmaterial und Versuchsaufbau 79
9.3 Weitere Variablen 80
9.3.1 Sprachliche Fähigkeiten 80
9.3.2 Soziale Erwünschtheit 81
9.3.3 Emotionswissen 83
10 Durchführung 84
10.1 Stichprobenakquise 84
10.2 Durchführung 86
11 Auswertung 89
11.1 Interviewdaten 89
11.1.1 Transkription der Interviewdaten 90
11.1.2 Kategorisierung der Emotionen 90
11.1.3 Kategorisierung der Begründungen von Urteilen und Emotionen 93
11.1.4 Vignettenübergreifender „Gesamtscore-Mixed-Emotions“ sowie „Moral-Emotions-Score“ 100
11.1.5 Gütekriterien 100
11.2 Beobachtungsdaten 100
11.2.1 Funktionsweise des FaceReaders 101
11.2.2 Vorgehen bei der Auswertung 103
11.3 Statistische Auswertung 104
IV Ergebnisse 104
12 Deskriptive Daten und statistische Hypothesenprüfung 104
12.1 Gemischte Emotionen und Alter 105
12.1.1 Deskriptive Daten: Gemischte Emotionen und Alter 105
12.1.2 Hypothesenprüfung: Gemischte Emotionen und Alter 105
12.2 Gemischte Emotionen und Kontext 114
12.2.1 Deskriptive Daten: Gemischte Emotionen und Kontext 114
12.2.2 Hypothesenprüfung: Gemischte Emotionen und Kontext 114
12.3 Intensität der berichteten moralischen Emotionen 115
12.3.1 Deskriptive Daten: Intensität der berichteten Emotionen 115
12.3.2 Hypothesenprüfung: Intensität der berichteten Emotionen 116
12.4 Begründungen der moralischen Urteile 117
12.4.1 Deskriptive Daten: Begründungen der moralischen Urteile 117
12.4.1 Hypothesenprüfung: Begründungen der moralischen Urteile 120
12.5 Begründungen der Emotionen 123
12.5.1 Deskriptive Daten: Begründungen der Emotionen 123
12.5.2 Hypothesenprüfung: Begründungen der Emotionen 126
12.6 Emotionswissen 128
12.6.1 Deskriptive Daten: Emotionswissen 129
12.6.2 Hypothesenprüfung: Emotionswissen 129
12.7 Affektive Reaktionen 130
12.7.1 Deskriptive Daten: Affektive Reaktionen 130
12.7.2 Hypothesenprüfung: Affektive Reaktionen 132
12.8 Berichtete Emotionen und affektive Reaktionen sowie soziale Erwünschtheit 132
12.8.1 Deskriptive Daten: Berichtete Emotionen und affektive Reaktionen sowie soziale Erwünschtheit 132
12.8.2 Hypothesenprüfung: Berichtete Emotionen und affektive Reaktionen sowie soziale Erwünschtheit 133
V Diskussion & Ausblick 134
13 Inhaltliche und Methodische Diskussion 134
13.1 Gemischte moralische Emotionen 135
13.2 Methodische Aspekte 144
14 Ausblick 147
Literatur 151
Anhang
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An Examination of the Influence of Romantic Relationships on Prosocial and Antisocial Behavior During the Period of Emerging Adulthood: A Mixed-Methods ApproachHocevar, Andrea 09 March 2009 (has links)
No description available.
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Body awareness, voluntary physiological regulation, and their modulation by contemplative mental trainingBornemann, Boris 31 July 2017 (has links)
In dieser Dissertation untersuche ich das Zusammenspiel mentaler und körperlicher Prozesse, insbesondere den Einfluss von kontemplativem Mentaltraining (KMT) auf Interozeption (innerliches Spüren des Körpers) und physiologische Regulation. In einer großangelegten Trainingsstudie (n = 332, Trainingsdauer 3-9 Monate), der ReSource-Studie, zeige ich, dass KMT die interozeptive Genauigkeit in den Trainingskohorten erhöht, nicht jedoch in einer Retest-Kontrollgruppe. Die Steigerungen in interozeptiver Genauigkeit gehen mit Veränderungen im emotionalen Gewahrsein einher und sagen diese voraus. Im Einklang mit diesen Befunden berichten die Studienteilnehmenden von positiven Veränderungen in verschiedenen Dimensionen des Körpergewahrseins. Diese betreffen vor allem die Fähigkeit, Aufmerksamkeit auf Körperempfindungen aufrechtzuerhalten sowie deren Gebrauch zur Emotionserkennung und -regulation. Ich beschreibe eine neuentwickelte Biofeedback-Aufgabe, welche die Fähigkeit misst, willentlich die hochfrequente Herzratenvariabilität (HF-HRV) hochzuregulieren, wodurch die willentliche parasympathische Kontrollfähigkeit (WPK) indiziert wird. Ich zeige, dass individuelle Unterschiede in WPK mit dem Oxytocin-Rezeptorgen-Polymorphismus rs53576 zusammenhängen und mit individuellen Unterschieden im altruistisch motivierten Verhalten korrelieren. WPK wird durch KMT verbessert, wobei diese Verbesserungen durch den rs53576 Genotyp moduliert werden. In einer weiteren Untersuchung zeige ich, dass retrospektive, subjektive Berichte über eine emotional erregende Erfahrung teilweise die objektiv gemessene körperliche Erregung widerspiegeln. Das Ausmaß dieser körperlich-mentalen Kohärenz ist abhängig von der interozeptiven Genauigkeit. Zusammengenommen vertiefen diese Studien unser Verständnis des Zusammenspiels von physiologischen und mentalen Prozessen und zeigen wie KMT das innerliche Spüren des Körpers und die willentliche physiologische Regulation verbessert. / In this dissertation, I investigate interactions between mental and bodily processes, specifically by studying the influence of contemplative mental training (CMT) on interoception (inner body sensing) and physiological regulation. In a large-scale mental training study (n = 332, training durations 3–9 months), the ReSource Project, I find that CMT increases interoceptive accuracy in the training cohorts, but not in a retest control cohort. These increases in interoceptive accuracy co-occur with and predict improvements in emotional awareness. In line with these objective data on interoception, participants self-report training-related benefits on multiple dimensions of body awareness. The strongest changes occur in the ability to sustain attention to body sensations and the use of this ability to identify and regulate emotions. I also introduce a novel biofeedback task that measures the ability to voluntarily upregulate high frequency heart rate variability (HF-HRV), indicative of voluntary parasympathetic control. Cross-sectional data of the ReSource Project show that individual differences in voluntary parasympathetic control are related to the oxytocin receptor gene rs53576 polymorphism and correlate to individual differences in altruistically motivated behavior. Furthermore, CMT improves various aspects of voluntary HF-HRV regulation, with modulation of these improvements by rs53576 genotype. An additional investigation in cross-sectional data shows that subjective retrospective reports of an emotionally arousing experience partially mirror the objectively measured bodily arousal during the actual experience. Individual differences in this mind–body coherence are related to individual differences in interoceptive accuracy. Together, these studies highlight the tight interplay between physiological and mental processes and show how CMT improves inner body sensing and voluntary physiological regulation.
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Effects of family routines and family stress on child competenciesHill, Crystal Renee 30 October 2006 (has links)
The current study had two purposes. The first purpose was to examine the
association between family rules and routines and first grade children's teacher-rated and
peer-rated behavioral competencies (e.g., emotional symptoms, conduct problems, peer
problems, hyperactivity, and prosocial behavior) after controlling for both family
stressors (i.e., single parent home, mobility, socioeconomic status, property ownership)
and child ethnicity (African American, Caucasian, Hispanic). The second purpose was to
determine if child regulatory control abilities mediates the effects of family rules and
routines and children's behavioral competencies.
The parents of 215 ethnically diverse children (38%, Caucasian, 22% African
American, 33% Hispanic, 7% Other) were interviewed in their homes with a modified
and shortened version of Family Routines Inventory (FRI; Jensen, James, Boyce, &
Hartnett, 1983). Teachers completed the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ;
Goodman, 1997), and peers completed a modified version of the Class Play (Masten,
Morison & Pelligrini, 1985). Scores from the SDQ were standardized and combined
with the standardized scores obtained from the peer nominations to create composites of the behavioral competencies. Additionally, teachers completed a modified version of the
California Child Q-set (CCQ) (Block & Block, 1980) as a measure of these children's
regulatory control abilities.
African American parents' ratings of their family's rules and routines were
higher than those of Hispanic and Caucasian parents' ratings. Additionally, family
stressors were positively associated with higher teacher and peer ratings of conduct
problems and lower ratings of prosocial behavior. Neither ethnicity nor family rules and
routines predicted child competencies. A statistically significant curvilinear relationship
was found between family rules and routines and conduct problems such that children of
parents reporting the highest and lowest levels of family rules and routines have more
conduct problems. No associations were found between family rules and routines and
child competencies or children's regulatory control abilities. Limitations of the study are
discussed in terms of inadequate measurement of family rules and routines, a defensive
response set, self-selection on the part of the parents to participate in the interview, and a
sample that is not representative of the community of parents and children in the
participating schools.
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類別相似性線索對於社會排斥後續反應之影響 / Categorical Similarity Cues from the Possible Future Affiliated People Elicit Different Reactions after Social Exclusion.洪嘉欣, Hong, Jia Sin Unknown Date (has links)
過往研究指出當個體受到社會排斥威脅後,可能產生兩種相反的行為,一者是具攻擊性的行為,而另一者則是希冀與其他人連結之親和傾向。本研究提出社會排斥之兩階段模式,認為當個體受到排斥威脅時,會同時有兩種不同的行為反應,一個是『避免傷害』,當此反應被激發時,被排斥個體會展現出『戰或逃』的行為傾向;而另一個反應則為『尋求歸屬』,在此反應被激發時,被排斥個體則會展現出『親近與示好』的行為傾向。而個體會出現何種反應,端視其之後互動的對象本身的屬性而定。若後續互動對象與先前排斥者間具有高相似性,此拒絕相似線索會引發個體展現出較高的戰或逃行為。相對的,若是後續互動對象所具有的特性與其自身之特性具有高相似性,亦即具有接納相似線索時,個體則會出現較多的示好行為。而這種隨著後續屬性,個體會出現不同反應歷程的假設在已完成的四個實驗中獲得初步的驗證。
實驗一(83名實驗參與者)採取2 (社會排斥:有、無) × 5 (類別相似線索:高拒絕線索vs.中拒絕線索 vs.高接納線索 vs.中接納線索 vs. 中性線索)之混合設計,結果發現受社會排斥威脅者會有較高意願加入帶有高可能接受線索之團體、較不願意加入帶有高拒絕線索之團體。實驗二(47名實驗參與者)採取閾下觸發來操弄社會排斥威脅,顯示社會排斥的確會讓人加速處理那些與拒絕者與可能接受者相關之訊息。而實驗三(74名實驗參與者)重複驗證了實驗一之發現,並且發現受社會排斥威脅之參與者在反應時間上會較快決定拒絕帶有高拒絕線索之團體,也會較快決定加入帶有高接納線索的團體(兩者皆對比於對中性線索團體之決策反應時間)。
實驗四(75名實驗參與者)則採取2 (社會排斥:有、無) × 2 (認知負荷:高、低) × 3 (類別相似線索:高拒絕線索vs.高接納線索vs. 中性線索)之混合設計,並發現當被社會排斥者處於高認知負荷狀態時,他們雖然還是能使用拒絕線索來選擇團體,但卻不會使用接受線索,顯示拒絕相似性線索為較為優先之線索。
實驗五A(67名實驗參與者)則採取2 (社會排斥:有、無) × 2 (性格回饋:有、無) × 4 (類別相似線索:拒絕線索對象vs.接納線索對象vs. 中性線索對象vs.原拒絕者)之混合設計,並發現當被給予性格回饋之後,受社會排斥威脅者會對於帶有接納線索的對象有較高的評價。而實驗五B(31名實驗參與者)採取2 (社會排斥:有、無) × 4 (類別相似線索:拒絕線索對象vs.接納線索對象vs. 中性線索對象vs.原拒絕者)之混合設計,發現受到社會排斥威脅者會對於帶有拒絕線索的對象及原拒絕者都會有較低的評價。
而實驗六與七則認為當個體對於相似性線索的認知被去、再類別化作業改變時,個體的反應也應隨之改變。實驗六採取(51名實驗參與者)則採取3 (社會排斥組別:社會排斥一般作業組、社會排斥再類別化組、控制組) × 4 (類別相似線索:拒絕線索對象vs.接納線索對象vs. 中性線索對象vs.原拒絕者)之混合設計,並發現當受到社會排斥者完成再類別化作業後,比起完成一般作業的參與者,他們對於原先帶有拒絕線索對象的評價會提升,而他們亦會提升對於原拒絕者的評價,顯示再類別化作業可以讓受威脅者感知到互動對象跟自己可以共屬另一個有意義之團體、自己與互動對象是相連結的,因而提升對這些對象之評價。
實驗七採取(46名實驗參與者)則採取3 (社會排斥組別:社會排斥一般作業組、社會排斥去類別化組、控制組) × 4 (類別相似線索:拒絕線索對象vs.接納線索對象vs. 中性線索對象vs.原拒絕者)之混合設計,並發現去類別化作業可以削弱類別相似性線索,因此使得受排斥者降低對原先帶有接納線索之對象的評價,亦會提升原先帶有拒絕線索對象之評價。換言之,由於去類別化作用會降低被威脅個體與互動對象的連結感,亦即他們對於互動對象與自己的相似性知覺會降低,個體因而降低對此類對象之評價;另一方面,去類別化作用也會降低帶有拒絕線索對象以及原拒絕者的相似性知覺,因而提升對於此類對象之評價。
綜合以上所述,本研究以一系列之研究來檢驗:個體受到社會排斥後,後續互動對象身上之類別相似性線索如何影響受威脅者之反應傾向。實驗一至五發現,當個體被社會排斥之後,他們對於那些帶有拒絕線索的個體會展現出戰或逃的行為傾向,並對帶有接納線索的個體展現親近與示好之行為,而拒絕相似性線索較為優先。而實驗六及七分別使用『再類別化』及『去類別化』兩種作業來改變類別相似性線索,來改變受社會排斥威脅者對於接納線索的知覺使其後續行為隨之改變。 / Previous research shows that social exclusion may cause either fight-or-flight behavior toward innocent people or a substantial increase in affiliation behavior. A two-stage model is proposed to explain people’s reactions after experiencing social exclusion. For these threatened individuals, groups that resemble their rejecter would provoke a defensive attitude and hostile behaviors. These individuals also show hospitality to those groups that resemble themselves to gain inclusion. The former process is more primary than the other.
Experiment 1 (83 participants) and 3 (74 participants) used a scenario story to manipulate social exclusion. Groups with different categorical cues categorical similarity cues were provided. The results suggested that people after experiencing social exclusion tended to reject groups that resemble to previous rejecter. By contrast, groups that fit the characteristics of the target person were much preferred and received more resources.
The second experiment (47 participants) used subliming priming to manipulate social exclusion. Main dependent measure was the decision time of lexical decision task. As predicted, compared to participants in control condition (all priming words in random order), those in social exclusion condition (being primed with rejection-softball and inclusion-enjoy-learning) processed rejection associated words (related to the reject group) and acceptance associated words (related to the perspective group) significantly faster than no association words.
Experiment 4 (75 participants) used a 2 (social exclusion vs. control condition) x 2 (cognitive load: heavy vs. light) x 3 (categorical similarity cues: high rejective cue, high perspective cue, irrelevant cue) mixed-design. The results indicated that the excluded participants who had a heavy cognitive load could only avoid groups that resemble the previous rejecter and showed no preference for groups that might be suitable for them. To defend is the primary process.
From experiment 5A to experiment 7, cyberostracism was employed to manipulate social exclusion. Experiment 5A (67 participants) used a 2 (social exclusion: social exclusion condition vs. control condition) x 2 (personality feedback: feedback vs. no feedback) x 4 (categorical similarity cues: rejective cue, perspective cue, irrelevant cue, rejecter) mixed-design. It was found that only those who with perspective cue could receive better evaluation from excluded participants. Experiment 5B suggested that excluded participants would evaluate people with rejective cues worse than those who in control group.
The experiment 6 and 7 used decategorization and recategorization task to change the perceptions of categorical similarity cues. Experiment 6 (51 participants) showed that recategorization task could weaken the effect of the rejective cue and thus excluded participants would give better evaluation to people with rejective cue than participants in social exclusion only condition. Experiment 7 (46 participants) suggested that decategorization task might weaken the effect of perspective cue and therefore the evaluation tended to decrease for people with perspective cue.
Eight experiments provided convergent evidence to this study to suggest that categorical similarity cues of possible affiliated people could elicit different reactions from excluded people.
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