Différents éléments peuvent influencer le fonctionnement socio-émotionnel des enfants et agir comme facteurs de protection ou facteurs de risque. Il est maintenant bien reconnu que ces facteurs proviennent d’éléments propres à l’enfant ainsi que d’aspects provenant de l’environnement dans lequel il grandit. Cette thèse se centre sur les facteurs intrinsèques et environnementaux les plus étudiés concernant le développement socio-émotionnel des enfants durant la petite enfance: le tempérament de l’enfant et la qualité des relations mère-enfant. Peu d’études se sont intéressées à l’interface entre le tempérament et la qualité des relations mère-enfant mesurés dans la petite enfance pour prédire le fonctionnement socio-émotionnel à l’âge scolaire. Pourtant, l’âge scolaire est marqué d’une étape de transition des plus saillantes du développement des enfants, c’est-à-dire l'entrée scolaire. L'ajustement socio-émotionnel des enfants au cours des premières années d’école est l'un des principaux facteurs influençant leur adaptation scolaire (Robson et al., 2020). Il est donc essentiel de comprendre pourquoi certains enfants fonctionnent mieux que d'autres sur ce plan durant l’âge scolaire. Le premier article explorait le rôle modérateur de la qualité des interactions mère-enfant, observée à 2 ans, dans la relation entre la tendance à la colère des enfants et leurs comportements intériorisés, extériorisés et prosociaux à l’entrée scolaire. Les résultats ont montré que la tendance à la colère des tout-petits prédisait des difficultés socio-émotionnelles chez ceux-ci, principalement dans le contexte d’une meilleure qualité d’interactions mère-enfant. Le deuxième article examinait les liens prédictifs entre le soutien maternel à l’autonomie (observé à 15 mois) et les trajectoires des comportements intériorisés et extériorisés des enfants mesurés de 2 à 7 ans, en contrôlant les dimensions négatives du tempérament des enfants. Les résultats du deuxième article ont montré que plus les mères soutenaient l’autonomie de leur enfant, plus les comportement intériorisés augmentaient lentement dans les années subséquentes et plus les comportements extériorisés diminuaient rapidement. / Different elements can act as protective or risk factors for child socioemotional functioning. It is now well recognized that these elements come from child-specific as well as environmental factors. This thesis focuses on the most studied intrinsic and environmental factors concerning child socioemotional development during toddlerhood: child temperament and mother-child relationship quality. Few studies have investigated the interplay between temperament and mother-child relationships in toddlerhood in the prediction of child socioemotional functioning in the early school years. Yet, this period includes a major developmental transition, namely school entry. Young children’s socioemotional adjustment during this period is one of the main factors influencing their school adaptation (Robson et al., 2020). It is therefore essential to understand why some children adapt better than others in early school years. The first article explored the moderating role of mother-child interactions quality, observed at 2 years old, in the association between child anger proneness and internalizing, externalizing and prosocial behaviors at school entry. The results showed that child anger proneness predicted socioemotional difficulties, primarily in the context of better mother-child interactions quality. The second article examines the predictive links between maternal autonomy support (observed at 15 months) and the trajectories of internalizing and externalizing behaviors measured from 2 to 7 years, while controlling for the negative dimensions of child temperament. The results showed that the more mothers supported their child's autonomy, the more internalizing behavior increased slowly and the more externalizing behavior decreased rapidly in later years.

Die vorliegende Dissertation untersucht am Beispiel von Online-Rollenspielen, wie sich prosoziales Verhalten in virtuellen Umgebungen im Vergleich zu dem in realen Umgebungen unterscheidet. Ausgangspunkt für die Untersuchungen sind die Modelle zum und Einflussgrößen auf das prosoziale Verhalten, die als Ergebnisse der einschlägigen Forschung realer Hilfesituationen vorliegen. Unter Berücksichtigung der Charakteristika und Besonderheiten von Online-Rollenspielen werden verschiedene Variablen wie Attraktivität des Hilfeempfängers, Ähnlichkeit zwischen Helfer und Hilfeempfänger, die Schwere der Notsituation und Gruppenzugehörigkeit auf ihre Auswirkung auf das prosoziale Verhalten in virtuellen Szenarien getestet. Um ein maximales Maß an externer Validität zu gewährleisten, kommt dabei die Methode der In-situ-Untersuchung zum Einsatz, bei der das Verhalten der Probanden in natürlichen Spielsituationen erfasst wird. Die Ergebnisse zeigen bei weiblichen Avataren einen signifikanten Einfluss der Attraktivität bei männlichen Helfern, wohingegen es bei fehlender Verfügbarkeit von Attraktivitätsmerkmalen keine Geschlechtsunterschiede gibt. Kein Einfluss auf prosoziales Verhalten kann bei den Variablen Schwere der Notsituation und perzeptueller Ähnlichkeit nachgewiesen werden. Darüber hinaus wird mittels einer Fragebogenstudie der Einfluss dispositionaler Merkmale, die unter dem Begriff prosoziale Persönlichkeit zusammengefasst werden, auf prosoziales Verhalten untersucht. Dabei zeigt sich, dass die positiven Prädiktoren empathic concern, other-oriented moral reasoning und der negative Prädiktor personal distress einen signifikanten Einfluss auf das Auftreten prosozialen Verhaltens in realen und in virtuellen Szenarien haben. Allerdings unterscheidet sich die Höhe des Einflusses dieser Variablen in Abhängigkeit der Zielpersonen des prosozialen Verhaltens (Ingroup vs. Outgroup) sowie des Umgebung (real vs. virtuell).

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Diese Dissertation umfasst drei Aufsätzen, die sich mit Erwartungen, Entscheidungen und deren Rückwirkung auf die Umgebung beschäftigen. Der erste Aufsatz untersucht die Binnenwanderung von Ost- nach Westdeutschland. Dabei wird der Zusammenhang von Variation in ökonomischen Disparitäten zwischen der Ursprungs- und der Zielregion und Bildungsniveau, Alter und Arbeitsmarktstatus der wandernden Bevölkerung untersucht. Mit Hilfe der SOEP Daten von 1993 bis 2011 gelangt die Untersuchung zu dem Ergebnis, dass regionale Disparitäten in Verbindung mit der Selbstselektion der Wandernden stehen. Während die Wandernden im Durchschnitt jünger und besser ausgebildet als die Bleibenden sind, verringert sich dieser Unterschied, wenn die Differentiale in den Arbeitslosenquoten zwischen den Regionen steigen. Im zweiten Aufsatz entwickle ich ein Modell zur Untersuchung von prosozialem Verhalten in Begegnungen mit Fremden. Durch das Abstrahieren von Möglichkeiten der Reputationsbildung oder des Bestraftwerdens, entfallen die wesentlichen strategischen Motive für prosoziales Verhalten. Die Entscheidung prosozial zu Handeln ist dann nicht mehr strategisch vorteilhaft sondern intrinsisch motiviert durch Altruismus und einer Neigung sich an das Verhalten anderer anzupassen. In einem zweiten Schritt untersuche ich, ob die Erkenntnisse des Modells mit dem empirisch beobachteten Verhalten übereinstimmen. Der dritte Aufsatz skizziert eine (mögliche) Verhaltensstruktur und notwendige Bedingungen auf Mikroebene, die zu den beobachteten Verhaltensunterschieden in prosozialem Verhalten zwischen dem ländlichen und städtischen Raum führen. Den Rahmen des hier entwickelten Modells bildet das bekannte Gefangenen Dilemma, das wiederholt mit zufällig zugeordneten Partnern einer großen Gesellschaft gespielt wird. Das Modell bezieht Merkmale ein, die sich häufig in realen Begegnungen wiederfinden: imperfekte Information, freiwillige Teilnahme und eine Neigung sich dem Verhalten anderer anzupassen. / This thesis consists of three essays that analyze choices and beliefs to explore how both lead to adaptive behavior. The first essay examines the positive net migration flow from the eastern to western parts of Germany. The migration decision is substantially based on expectations about future developments. With economic conditions changing substantially over the past 20 years in the eastern part of Germany, the incentives to migrate have also altered, so changing the composition of the east-to-west migrant body. This essay explores variations in economic disparities between the region of origin and region of destination, relating them to changes in the skill level, age and labor force status of the migrant population. Analyzing SOEP data from 1993-2011, the findings suggest that, with falling wage differentials, older migrants are less frequent job-to-job movers and are more likely to be non-working prior to migration. Furthermore, while migrants tend to be younger and better educated than stayers, the group of movers becomes partly less distinct from the group of stayers with respect to the skill and age composition when regional disparities in employment opportunities increase. The second and the third essay of this thesis model the decision making process in social interactions between strangers. In these situations, choices are often affected by beliefs about others behavior. In the second essay of this work, I develop a simple model of prosocial behavior for encounters between strangers. By abstracting from the possibility of reputation building and punishment between anonymous partners, I remove the main strategic motives for prosocial behavior so reducing it to a simple non-strategic decision. The principal motivation to behave prosocially is then intrinsic, based on altruism, with a taste for conforming to the behavior of others. In this way, individual decisions are conditional on the behavior of others. Emerging equilibria will then explain the occurrence of prosocial or cooperative behavior within a given society. In a second step, I analyze whether the model’s predictions are consistent with the empirical evidence on the link between beliefs and prosocial behavior using data on blood donations. The third essay outline a (possible) micro-structure and conditions which lead to the observed urban-rural differences in cooperative behavior using agent-based modeling. The model presented here adapts the familiar framework of a prisoners dilemma which is played repeatedly with randomly matched members of a large population. I introduce features that are often found in real world interactions: imperfect information, voluntary participation and a taste for conforming to majority behavior. In this analysis, peoples beliefs about the level of cooperation in the population and their resulting behavior are determined endogenously. Both are governed principally by the experience that they derive from interactions. I present results of an agentbased simulation in order to study the emerging dynamic relationships, to examine how cooperative behavior evolves over time under different circumstances, and to determine how urban-rural differences in behavior emerge. The factors that give rise to rural-urban differences are heterogeneity in individual loss aversion or risk taking, and limited migration possibilities between rural and urban areas.

This diploma thesis deals with the opinions of teachers on the inclusion of competitive games in the nursery environment. The aim of the thesis is to find and analyze the opinions of a selected sample of teachers on this issue. The work is divided into four main chapters. The introductory chapters are devoted to the concept of the game of various authors and authorities, to the place of preschool child play in the environment of the kindergarten and also to the separate problems of the competitive game. The main part of the thesis is the analysis and evaluation of the research carried out. The essence of the empirical part is qualitative research. The data acquisition method is a semi-structured interview, through which educators working at the tertiary level of education are asked to include competing games in nursery schools.

More than two hundred years ago David Hume together with his fellow philosopher Adam Smith posited, that ethical behaviour arises from so called: "moral sense". In the other words, they share the same idea, that passions are principle evoking and guiding human behaviour. Hume claim: "Reason is, and ought only to be the slave of the passions" (…). It is possible that this statement - among others - woke up from the 'dogmatic dream' one of the greatest philosophers of all time - Immanuel Kant, who propose, - contrary to Hume - that reason but not necessary passions can determinate human actions. In the question of what rule the passions in ethics have, it seems to be helpful to use the knowledge which follows from recent science. During this thesis we will use methods such as: comparison, analysis and synthesis. Main aim of this thesis will be to deal with the following question: what relationship can be observed between empathy, "moral sense" and ethical behaviour in perspective of recent science. This enquiry will therefore try to deal with the old question: what the the relationship between reason, passions and ethical behaviour is.

A recent meta-analysis of Anderson and colleagues (2010) shows that violent behavior in computer games promotes violent behavior in real-life and inhibits prosocial behavior. A couple of studies conducted by Greitemeyer and Osswald (2010) lead to the conclusion that helping behavior in computer games furthers helping behavior in real-life. There exist no studies examining the combined effect of violence and helping in computer games, although this combination is typical for violent video games (Anderson et al., 2010). In violent RPGs, a lot of tasks consist of helping someone by using violence. The present study addresses this issue and bridges the current empirical gap by investigating if violent emergency assistance furthers helping behavior and/or violent behavior in real-life. To accomplish that, the role-playing game “Oblivion” was modified to create four different experimental conditions: (1) violent emergency assistance, (2) killing, (3) helping, and (4) treasure hunting. Comparing these conditions, violent emergency assistance seemingly reduces helping behavior in real-life and at the same time furthers violent behavior. The results are in unison with the moral management model (Hartmann & Vorderer, 2010; Hartmann, in press), which is based on Banduras Theory of Moral Disengagement (Bandura, 2002).

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[ES] La falta de empatía en niños y adolescentes son fuertes predictores de desarrollar conductas antisociales, emitir juicios morales inadecuados, dificultades en las relaciones interpersonales o conductas de acoso escolar, por lo que es necesario disponer de programas educativos que promuevan la empatía y una respuesta "orientada hacia los demás" desde edades tempranas para ayudar a fomentar un mayor bienestar social en los estudiantes. Un enfoque ampliamente utilizado para promover el aprendizaje en el contexto educativo es la gamificación dado que mejora en los estudiantes la motivación para aprender, la participación activa y la satisfacción, compartiendo la idea de utilizar experiencias de juego positivas para un propósito serio, como lograr un cambio de comportamiento, en lugar de centrarse en el entretenimiento. Se dispone en la literatura de algunas propuestas gamificadas tecnológicas para promover la empatía en la educación, sin embargo pocos trabajos integran la Realidad Aumentada (RA), una forma de juego radicalmente nueva que permite cultivar experiencias de aprendizaje inmersivas y estimulantes al combinar contenido digital superpuesto en el mundo real. Esta tecnología emergente e innovadora es compatible con los dispositivos móviles, siendo unidades asequibles con capacidades de reconocimiento de imágenes, seguimiento de objetos, detección de ubicación y orientación, siendo una solución práctica para ofrecer al usuario una experiencia RA no necesitando requisitos de hardware sofisticados. Esta tesis revela la falta de investigación sobre entornos sociales digitales para promover la empatía, existiendo evidencias de que la empatía y la respuesta prosocial/prosocialidad están significativamente relacionadas. Por ello, esta tesis propone un modelo circular de empatía híbrido derivado de los modelos existentes en la literatura y que involucra los procesos y componentes principales de esta habilidad, para promover acciones conductuales dirigidas a beneficiar o ayudar a otros, como el comportamiento prosocial. Este modelo circular se transforma en dinámicas de juego operativas a través de un modelo gamificado de aprendizaje de tareas y pasos para llevar al jugador a experimentar diversidad de escenarios o historias reflexivas (observación), organizadas en torno a un desafío o misión central desarrollada de forma individual (monousuario) o grupal (multiusuario), buscando promover emociones positivas como la empatía en términos del comportamiento prosocial (actuación). El modelo de aprendizaje está definido por espacios aumentados basados en la ubicación siendo coordenadas GPS o anclajes espaciales (espacios físicos previamente escaneados) y que puede ser adaptado a múltiples contextos de aprendizaje. En esta tesis se presentan dos estrategias gamificadas basadas en la ubicación con Realidad Aumentada Móvil. La primera EmoFindAR, con "anclajes espaciales" diseñado a nivel multiusuario con dinámica competitiva vs. colaborativa para la identificación y manipulación de estados emocionales básicos, evaluada en la educación primaria donde se observa que promueve en los estudiantes la socialización, las habilidades comunicativas y la inteligencia emocional. La segunda propuesta diseñada con el "Sistema de Posicionamiento Global (GPS)", siendo EmpathyAR para un aprendizaje individualizado y su versión multiusuario SocialTaskAR para un aprendizaje en equipo. / [CA] La falta d'empatia en xiquets i adolescents és un fort predictor de desenvolupar conductes antisocials, emetre judicis morals inadequats, dificultats en les relacions interpersonals o conductes d'assetjament escolar, per la qual cosa és necessari disposar de programes educatius que promouen l'empatia i una resposta "orientada cap als altres" des d'edats primerenques per a ajudar a fomentar un major benestar social en els estudiants. Un enfocament àmpliament utilitzat per a promoure l'aprenentatge en el context educatiu és la ludificació donat que millora en els estudiants la motivació per a aprendre, la participació activa i la satisfacció, compartint la idea d'utilitzar experiències de joc positives per a un propòsit seriós, com aconseguir un canvi de comportament, en lloc de centrar-se en l'entreteniment. Es disposa en la literatura d'algunes propostes lúdiques tecnològiques per a promoure l'empatia en l'educació, no obstant això pocs treballs integren la Realitat Augmentada (RA), una forma de joc radicalment nova que permet cultivar experiències d'aprenentatge immersives i estimulants en combinar contingut digital superposat en el món real. Aquesta tecnologia emergent i innovadora és compatible amb els dispositius mòbils, sent unitats assequibles amb capacitats de reconeixement d'imatges, seguiment d'objectes, detecció d'ubicació i orientació, sent una solució pràctica per a oferir a l'usuari una experiència RA no necessitant requisits de maquinari sofisticat. Aquesta tesi revela la falta d'investigació sobre entorns socials digitals per a promoure l'empatia, existint evidències que l'empatia i la resposta pro social estan significativament relacionades. Per això, aquesta tesi proposa un model circular d'empatia híbrid derivat dels models existents en la literatura i que involucra els processos i components principals d'aquesta habilitat, per a promoure accions conductuals dirigides a beneficiar o ajudar a uns altres, com el comportament pro social. Aquest model circular es transforma en dinàmiques de joc operatives a través d'un model ludificat d'aprenentatge de tasques i passos per a portar al jugador a experimentar diversitat d'escenaris o històries reflexives (observació), organitzades entorn d'un desafiament o missió central desenvolupada de manera individual (monousuari) o grupal (multiusuari), buscant promoure emocions positives com l'empatia en termes del comportament pro social (actuació). El model d'aprenentatge està definit per espais augmentats basats en la ubicació sent coordenades GPS o ancoratges espacials (espais físics prèviament escanejats) i que pot ser adaptat a múltiples contextos d'aprenentatge. En aquesta tesi es presenten dues estratègies lúdiques basades en la ubicació amb Realitat Augmentada Mòbil. La primera EmoFindAR, amb "ancoratges espacials" dissenyat a nivell multiusuari amb dinàmica competitiva vs. col.laborativa per a la identificació i manipulació d'estats emocionals bàsics, avaluada en l'educació primària on s'observa que promou en els estudiants la socialització, les habilitats comunicatives i la intel·ligència emocional. La segona proposta dissenyada amb el "Sistema de Posicionament Global (GPS)", sent EmpathyAR per a un aprenentatge individualitzat i la seua versió multiusuari SocialTaskAR per a un aprenentatge en equip. / [EN] The lack of empathy in children and adolescents is a strong predictor of developing antisocial behavior, resulting in inappropriate moral judgments, difficulties in interpersonal relationships or bullying behavior, which is why it is necessary to have educational programs that promote empathy and an response "oriented towards others" from an early age to help foster greater social well-being in students. A widely used approach to promote learning in the educational context is gamification since it improves students' motivation to learn, active participation and satisfaction, sharing the idea of using positive game experiences for a serious purpose, such as achieving a behavioral change, instead of focusing on entertainment. There are some technological gamified proposals in the literature to promote empathy in education, however few works integrate Augmented Reality (AR), a radically new form of gaming that allows cultivating immersive and stimulating learning experiences by combining digital content superimposed in the real world. This emerging and innovative technology is compatible with mobile devices, which are affordable units with image recognition, object tracking, location detection and orientation capabilities, a practical solution to offer the user an AR experience without needing sophisticated hardware requirements. This thesis reveals the lack of research on digital social environments to promote empathy, with evidence that empathy and prosocial response/pro-sociality are significantly related. Therefore, this thesis proposes a hybrid circular model of empathy derived from existing models in the literature involving the main processes and components of this ability, to promote behavioral actions aimed at benefiting or helping others, such as prosocial behavior. This circular model is transformed into operational game dynamics through a gamified model of learning tasks and steps to lead the player to experience a diversity of scenarios or reflective stories (observation), organized around a central challenge or mission developed in an individual (single-user) or group (multi-user), seeking to promote positive emotions such as empathy in terms of prosocial behavior (performance). The learning model is defined in terms of location-based augmented spaces being GPS coordinates or spatial anchors (previously scanned physical spaces) and that can be adapted to multiple learning contexts. In this thesis two gamified strategies based on location with Mobile Augmented Reality are presented. The first EmoFindAR, with "spatial anchors" designed at a multi-user level with competitive vs. collaborative dynamics for the identification and manipulation of basic emotional states, evaluated in primary education where it is observed that it promotes socialization, communication skills and emotional intelligence in students. The second proposal designed with the "Global Positioning System (GPS)", is EmpathyAR for individualized learning and its multi-user version SocialTaskAR for team learning. / Gracias a todos los miembros del proyecto R+D+i PID2019-108915RB-I00 por sus contribuciones brindadas y en particular a Jorge Montaner Marco por su colaboración incondicional. / López Faicán, LG. (2023). Desarrollo de habilidades empáticas mediante estrategias de gamificación basadas en realidad aumentada móvil multiusuario para el contexto educativo [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/200583