En pilotanläggning för ultrafiltering testas nu i Norrvattens reningsprocess för att undersöka ifall den kan användas som en tredje mikrobiologisk barriär i reningsprocessen. Målet med detta projekt är att testa membranets kapacitet att filtrera bort viruspartiklar men även membranet generella reduktionsförmåga för andra mikrobiologiska och kemiska kontamineringar. För att hitta lämpliga kandidater att använda sig av för att mäta reduktionskapaciteten av membranet har en litteraturstudie samt experimentell testning av råvattnet genomförts. OD mätningar på bakteriekulturer samt plackbildandeenheter (PBE) har undersökt för att se om bakteriofager kan finnas i proven. Ungefär 9000 L av ingående och utgående vatten från ultrafilteringen har koncentrerats med hjälp av ett elektropositivt filter som senare har eluerats och ultracentrifugerats. Pellet från ultracentrifugeringen har testat för virusdetektion med hjälp av PCR, qPCR samt PBE. TOC och absorbansmätningar har också genomförts på ingående och utgående vatten från ultrafiltermembranet. Slutligen utfördes ett bänkskaleexperiment för att undersöka hur väl filtret reducerade MS2 fager i utgående vatten. Den inledande testningen visade att plantviruset PMMoV och Pseudomonas fager kan vara bra kandidater att använda sig av för att mäta virusreduktionen över ultrafiltermembranet. När elueringen från ultrafiltreringen testades indikerades en minskad DNA koncentrationen över ultrafiltermembranet med hjälp av Qubit-mätningar. Testningen visade även indikation på att PMMoV reduceras över membranet samt att Pseudomonas fager kan finnas i vattnet. TOC och absorbansmätningarna visade en konstant reduktion över membranet. I bänkskaleexperiment borde enlig teori alla fager stoppas av membranet eftersom viruset är större än porstorleken 20 nm, dock visade experimentell testning på att fager även fanns i utgående vatten från filteringen. Resultat av studien indikerar att mikrobiologiska och kemiska kontamineringar tas bort av membranet, dock för att bestämma den exakta virusreduktionen över membranet och ifall alla kontamineringar större än filters porstorlek (20 nm) tas bort kräver vidare testning.  E. coli fager, som i Livsmedelverket nya restriktioner används för att undersöka mikrobiologiska risker i vattenreningsprocesser, har också testats under studien på vattnet utan positiva utslag. Det kan därför vara av intresse att även undersöka andra fager, så som Pseudomonas fager för att kontrollera dem mikrobiologiska riskerna med vattenrening. / The present study was investigating the effectiveness of the ultrafiltration membrane as third biological barrier in Norrvattens drinking water treatment process, using a pilot scale model. This project aims to test the viral reduction capability of the membrane but also to remove other microbiological and chemical contaminants. To find suitable candidates for measuring the reduction capability, literature research has been performed as well as experimental testing of the raw water coming into the treatment plant and the backwash water from the membrane. Bacterial growth analysis using optical density (OD) measurements and plaque forming unit (PFU) has been performed to investigate the presence of bacteriophages. Approximately 9000 L of incoming and outgoing water from the ultrafiltration membrane has been concentrated using an electropositive membrane which then was eluted and ultracentrifuged. The pellet from ultracentrifugation has been tested for viral detection with PCR, qPCR and plating. TOC and absorbance measurement was also performed on the ingoing and outgoing water from the ultrafiltration pilot plant. Finally, a bench-scale experiment was performed using MS2-spiked water to investigate how well the filter reduced MS2 phages in the outgoing water.  The initial testing of the raw and backwash water showed that the plant virus Pepper Mild Mottle Virus (PMMoV) and Pseudomonas phages may be good candidates to use when evaluating the ultrafiltration membrane. When testing the eluate from the ultrafiltration pilot plant a reduction was seen in the starting DNA concentration when comparing the inlet and outlet water to the ultrafiltration pilot plant. The testing gave indications of a reduction of PMMoV and presence of Pseudomonas phages. The bench-scale experiment was hypothesized to stop all viral particles since according to theory the virus should be stopped by the membrane due to its pore size, but experimental testing indicated viruses in the outgoing water from the membrane as well. TOC and absorbance measurements showed a constant reduction over the membrane. The result of the study indicates that microbiological and chemical contaminants are removed by the filter, however, to determine the exact viral reduction potential of the filter and if all contaminant over the size of 20 nm is removed further testing is required.  No indications were seen for Escherichia coli (E. coli) phages in the water throughout the study, which in Livsmedelverket’s (The National Food Agency) new regulations is used for determining the microbiological risks in water treatment processes. It may be of interest to investigate the possibility to also look for other type of phages to determine the microbiological risks, for example Pseudomonas phages which has been seen in this study.

Interferentes endócrinos (IE) são substâncias capazes de afetar o sistema endócrino causando danos à saúde. Os compostos estrogênicos são um tipo de IE que geram resposta biológica semelhante aos hormônios endógenos, chamada atividade estrogênica, são frequentemente encontrados no ambiente devido à poluição de origem antrópica e ineficiência de processos de tratamento de água e esgoto. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a atividade estrogênica de águas de mananciais e águas tratadas para abastecimento no Estado de São Paulo por meio de bioensaios. Foram utilizados dois métodos, baseados em diferentes linhagens da levedura Saccharomyces cerevisiae capazes de responder a agentes estrogênicos pela presença do gene que codifica para o receptor de estrogênio humano e sistemas de gene repórter da atividade estrogênica. Uma das linhagens contém o gene luc, método denominado neste trabalho de Lesk, enquanto a outra contém genes lux como repórter, denominado método San. Os métodos foram comparados quanto à especificidade e sensibilidade de resposta aos principais interferentes endócrinos de ocorrência em águas e com dados de análises cromatográficas das respectivas amostras ambientais. Foi observada atividade estrogênica expressiva nas águas brutas coletadas em pontos específicos nas cidades de Campinas, Barueri, Cerquilho e em efluente hospitalar e em todas essas amostras foram detectados compostos estrogênicos-alvo. As amostras de água tratada não apresentaram atividade estrogênica nem compostos estrogênicos, com apenas uma exceção. O método San foi mais sensível que o método Lesk, tanto para compostos químicos puros quanto para amostras ambientais. O teor de substâncias detectado por análises cromatográficas não foi suficiente para explicar a atividade estrogênica observada nos bioensaios, indicando que concentrações abaixo dos limites de detecção podem gerar o efeito biológico ou que compostos estrogênicos não estudados e suas misturas podem estar presentes gerando efeitos aumentados. / Endocrine disrupting (ED) chemicals are compounds able to interact with the endocrine system causing health adverse effects. Estrogenic compounds are a type of ED that produce a biological response similar to organism\'s natural hormones, called estrogenic activity; they are frequently found in the environment and are usually associated to the pollution from human activities. The goal of this work was to evaluate the estrogenic activity of rivers raw and treated water around the State of São Paulo Brazil - using bioassays. Two different strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae able to respond to estrogenic compounds, due to the presence of genes that encodes for the human estrogen receptor, were used. One of the strains has the luc gene (method Lesk), a reporter of estrogenic activity and the other contains lux genes (method San) as reporter of estrogenic activity. Both methods were compared regarding their specificity and sensitivity for chemical substances and environmental samples. The results were also compared with the chemical analysis data of target pure compounds in those waters and with the literature. Estrogenic activity was detected in raw water samples collected in Campinas, Barueri and Cerquilho and also in hospital effluent, for all those samples estrogenic compounds were determined. San method showed to be more sensitive to pure chemical compounds and environmental samples. For treated water no estrogenic activity was found, except for one sample from Barueri that presented a low response. The amounts of compounds detected by chromatographic analysis were not sufficient to explain the observed estrogenic activity when bioassays were used, therefore low compounds concentration or other compounds and their mixtures may be responsible for the high biological effet detected by bioassays.

Orientador: Romeu Cantusio Neto / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Biologia / Made available in DSpace on 2018-09-28T14:16:54Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Pinto_DiegodeOliveira_M.pdf: 2983083 bytes, checksum: 203eb1379711790b56fd1c53f7740c0c (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013 / Resumo: Os protozoários patogênicos Giardia spp. e Cryptosporidium spp. estão entre os principais contaminantes associados à veiculação hídrica e seu monitoramento em águas de abastecimento público é determinado pela Portaria n. 2.914/2011, do Ministério da Saúde do Brasil. Este trabalho foi dividido em duas partes. Na primeira, foi realizado um estudo da aplicabilidade do Método 1623 utilizando Filta-Max® (FMx) e Método de Filtração em Membranas (FM). Cistos de Giardia spp. e oocistos de Cryptosporidium spp. foram inoculados artificialmente em amostras de água bruta superficial proveniente do rio Atibaia, coletadas na cidade de Campinas/SP, Brasil, e agrupadas de acordo com faixas de turbidez. Cistos de Giardia spp. naturalmente presentes nas amostras foram detectados em todas as faixas de turbidez por ambos os métodos. O método de FM atendeu aos critérios de controle de qualidade analítica da USEPA em todas as faixas de turbidez. Não houve diferença estatística significativa entre os métodos de FMx e FM. Na segunda parte deste trabalho, foi feito um estudo da etapa de purificação por Separação Imunomagnética (IMS) no qual foi avaliado o desempenho dos procedimentos de dissociação: ácida e térmica; bem como investigado possíveis causas de perdas dos organismos-alvo durante execução desta etapa. A dissociação ácida apresentou maior média de eficiência de recuperação e precisão do que a dissociação térmica para cistos de Giardia spp.. Para oocistos de Cryptosporidium spp. não houve diferença estatística significativa. Após o procedimento de dissociação, tanto ácida quanto térmica, haviam cistos e oocistos aderidos às beads (micro-esferas magnéticas) que seriam descartadas de acordo com o protocolo padrão da IMS / Abstract: The pathogenic protozoa Giardia spp. and Cryptosporidium spp. are some the major waterborne contaminants and their monitoring in water supply is determined in Decree no. 2.914/2011, the Brazil¿s Ministry of Health. This study was divided in two parts. In the first, a study was conducted to evaluate the applicability of two methods for concentration of pathogenic protozoa Giardia spp. and Cryptosporidium spp. in water samples: Method 1623 using Filta-Max® (FMX) and Membrane Filtration (MF) Method. Giardia spp cysts and Cryptosporidium spp oocysts were artificially inoculated in samples of raw surface water from the Atibaia River, collected in Campinas/SP, Brazil, and grouped according to ranges of turbidity. Giardia spp. cysts naturally present in the samples were detected in all ranges of turbidity by both methods. The method of FM met the criteria for analytical quality control of USEPA in all ranges of turbidity. There was no statistically significant difference between the methods of FM and FMX. In the second part of this work, a study was made of the purification step by immunomagnetic separation (IMS) in which was evaluate the performance of the dissociation procedures: acid and heat, as well as investigating possible causes loss of target organisms during execution of this step. The acid dissociation showed higher mean recovery efficiency and accuracy than heat dissociation for Giardia spp.. For Cryptosporidium spp. difference was not statistically significant. After the dissociation procedure, both acid and heat, cysts and oocysts were still adhered to the beads (magnetic microspheres) that would be discarded, according to the standard protocol of IMS / Mestrado / Relações Antrópicas, Meio Ambiente e Parasitologia / Mestre em Biologia Animal

Interferentes endócrinos (IE) são substâncias capazes de afetar o sistema endócrino causando danos à saúde. Os compostos estrogênicos são um tipo de IE que geram resposta biológica semelhante aos hormônios endógenos, chamada atividade estrogênica, são frequentemente encontrados no ambiente devido à poluição de origem antrópica e ineficiência de processos de tratamento de água e esgoto. O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a atividade estrogênica de águas de mananciais e águas tratadas para abastecimento no Estado de São Paulo por meio de bioensaios. Foram utilizados dois métodos, baseados em diferentes linhagens da levedura Saccharomyces cerevisiae capazes de responder a agentes estrogênicos pela presença do gene que codifica para o receptor de estrogênio humano e sistemas de gene repórter da atividade estrogênica. Uma das linhagens contém o gene luc, método denominado neste trabalho de Lesk, enquanto a outra contém genes lux como repórter, denominado método San. Os métodos foram comparados quanto à especificidade e sensibilidade de resposta aos principais interferentes endócrinos de ocorrência em águas e com dados de análises cromatográficas das respectivas amostras ambientais. Foi observada atividade estrogênica expressiva nas águas brutas coletadas em pontos específicos nas cidades de Campinas, Barueri, Cerquilho e em efluente hospitalar e em todas essas amostras foram detectados compostos estrogênicos-alvo. As amostras de água tratada não apresentaram atividade estrogênica nem compostos estrogênicos, com apenas uma exceção. O método San foi mais sensível que o método Lesk, tanto para compostos químicos puros quanto para amostras ambientais. O teor de substâncias detectado por análises cromatográficas não foi suficiente para explicar a atividade estrogênica observada nos bioensaios, indicando que concentrações abaixo dos limites de detecção podem gerar o efeito biológico ou que compostos estrogênicos não estudados e suas misturas podem estar presentes gerando efeitos aumentados. / Endocrine disrupting (ED) chemicals are compounds able to interact with the endocrine system causing health adverse effects. Estrogenic compounds are a type of ED that produce a biological response similar to organism\'s natural hormones, called estrogenic activity; they are frequently found in the environment and are usually associated to the pollution from human activities. The goal of this work was to evaluate the estrogenic activity of rivers raw and treated water around the State of São Paulo Brazil - using bioassays. Two different strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae able to respond to estrogenic compounds, due to the presence of genes that encodes for the human estrogen receptor, were used. One of the strains has the luc gene (method Lesk), a reporter of estrogenic activity and the other contains lux genes (method San) as reporter of estrogenic activity. Both methods were compared regarding their specificity and sensitivity for chemical substances and environmental samples. The results were also compared with the chemical analysis data of target pure compounds in those waters and with the literature. Estrogenic activity was detected in raw water samples collected in Campinas, Barueri and Cerquilho and also in hospital effluent, for all those samples estrogenic compounds were determined. San method showed to be more sensitive to pure chemical compounds and environmental samples. For treated water no estrogenic activity was found, except for one sample from Barueri that presented a low response. The amounts of compounds detected by chromatographic analysis were not sufficient to explain the observed estrogenic activity when bioassays were used, therefore low compounds concentration or other compounds and their mixtures may be responsible for the high biological effet detected by bioassays.

In the last decade, significant intensification has occurred in studies on raw water charges. However, the real possibility of charge application has provoked questions and concern in society, mostly due to the few studies developed where charges were actually applied. The main objective of this research was to evaluate the applicability of raw water charges in a Brazilian basin, taking into account the limitations of existing data, other management instruments previously studied in the basin and the opinion of the water basin management committee. First, records on basin water users were improved and made consistent. Next, a raw water charge model was developed and simulated, based on actions indicating the annual values that need to be collected. Economic impact and social acceptability were analyzed. The results obtained were compared with simulations performed using raw water charge models of the CEIVAP and PCJ committees. For orientation of the values to be charged, the following principles were used: (a) PUP User-Pay Principle; and (b) PPP Polluter-Pay Principle. The Santa Maria River Basin was chosen as the case. It is located on the southernmost border of the state of Rio Grande do Sul. It has an area of 15,754 km² and its main economic activity is rice production. For the R$ 68.5 million investment financed over 20 years, the average fee was R$ 0.0085/m³, but this value could vary from R$ 0.0001/m³ to 0.0294/m³ according to the weights of the variables established in the model. The levying by sector was: Agriculture 44.85%; Urban Water Supply 41.35%; Rural Water Supply 12.36%; Industry 0.20%; and Cattle raising 1.24%; and by type of use was: Collecting 27.18%; Consumption 21.71% and Dilution 51.10%. The different simulations showed that the charging in the Santa Maria River Basin is viable, providing that the economic impact on sector users is determined. The present study also observed that the basin population is unaware of the management system for water resources. However, the general population is in favor of charges based on the objectives established in Brazilian legislation. The present study demonstrated that the principal aim of the initial raw water charge application process in Brazil will be the obtainment of financial resources to solve the problems of basin water resources. Nevertheless, the way to achieve this must be based on criteria of justice, efficiency and environmental sustainability and not based merely upon political decisions or social criteria. / Nesta última década ocorreu uma significativa intensificação nos estudos de cobrança pelo uso da água. Entretanto, a possibilidade real de aplicação da cobrança tem provocado dúvidas e inquietações na sociedade, principalmente devido aos poucos trabalhos desenvolvidos em que a cobrança foi efetivamente implantada. O objetivo central desta pesquisa é avaliar a aplicabilidade da cobrança pelo uso da água à realidade de uma bacia hidrográfica brasileira, considerando a limitação dos dados existentes, os outros instrumentos de gestão já estudados e a participação do comitê de gerenciamento da bacia. Em primeiro lugar, foram aprimorados e consistidos os dados cadastrais dos usuários de água da bacia. A seguir, foi desenvolvido e simulado o modelo de cobrança pelo uso da água, baseado em ações que indicaram os valores anuais a serem arrecadados. Foi analisado o impacto econômico sobre os setores usuários e a aceitabilidade social da cobrança. Os resultados obtidos foram comparados com simulações realizadas utilizando os modelos de cobrança dos comitês CEIVAP e PCJ. Para a orientação dos valores a serem cobrados, os seguintes princípios foram adotados: (a) PUP Princípio Usuário Pagador; e (b) PPP Princípio Poluidor Pagador. A bacia de estudo foi a bacia do Rio Santa Maria, localizada na fronteira sudoeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul, com uma área de 15.754 km² e atividade econômica preponderante a produção de arroz. Para o investimento de R$ 68,50 milhões, financiado em 20 anos, a tarifa média foi de R$ 0,0085/m³, podendo variar de R$ 0,0001/m³ a 0,0294/m³ de acordo com os pesos das variáveis estabelecidas no modelo. A arrecadação por setor usuário foi: Agricultura 44,85%; Abastecimento Urbano 41,35%; Abastecimento Rural 12,36%; Indústria 0,20%; e Pecuária 1,24%; e por tipo de uso foi: Captação 27,18%; Consumo 21,71% e Diluição 51,10%. As diferentes simulações realizadas demonstraram que a cobrança na bacia do Rio Santa Maria é viável, desde que sejam obtidos pequenos impactos econômicos nos setores usuários. A pesquisa constatou também que a população da bacia desconhece o sistema de gerenciamento dos recursos hídricos. Entretanto, de um modo geral, a população é favorável à cobrança com os objetivos preconizados nas legislações brasileiras. A experiência deste trabalho trouxe a certeza de que, no início do processo de implementação da cobrança pelo uso da água no Brasil, o objetivo principal será arrecadar recursos financeiros para solucionar os problemas dos recursos hídricos das bacias. Contudo, a maneira de realizar esta arrecadação deve ser baseada em variáveis ou critérios de justiça, eficiência e sustentabilidade ambiental e não serem pautadas exclusivamente por decisões políticas ou critérios sociais.

Submitted by Fabio Sobreira Campos da Costa (fabio.sobreira@ufpe.br) on 2016-07-15T12:20:57Z No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) Tese SILVA AMRB.pdf: 10197611 bytes, checksum: dfa95dac75e87b0ffef8a344cb8d9996 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-07-15T12:20:57Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) Tese SILVA AMRB.pdf: 10197611 bytes, checksum: dfa95dac75e87b0ffef8a344cb8d9996 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-01-30 / CNPq / Petrobrás / A aplicação de técnicas de Análises de Componentes Principais (ACP), Redes Neurais Artificiais (RNA), Lógica Fuzzy e Sistema Neurofuzzy para investigar as alterações da característica da água das barragens de Utinga e do Bita que abastecem de água bruta a ETA Suape é de fundamental importância em função do grande número de variáveis utilizadas para definir a qualidade. Neste trabalho, foram realizadas 10 coletas de água em cada área, no período de novembro de 2007 a agosto de 2012, totalizando 120 amostras. Ainda que o conjunto de dados experimentais obtidos seja reduzido, houve múltiplos esforços em demanda da aquisição de informações da qualidade da água junto aos órgãos oficiais de monitoramento ambiental. Os resultados mostraram uma tendência à degradação da propriedade da água das barragens em decorrência da presença de microrganismos, sais e nutrientes, responsáveis pelo processo de eutrofização, o que se configurou pela maior concentração de fósforo total, Coliformes termotolerantes, e diminuição de pH e OD, provavelmente devido à ocorrência de descarte de efluentes da agroindústria canavieira, industrial e doméstico. A ACP caracterizou mais 76% das amostras permitindo visualizar a existência de mudanças sazonais e uma pequena variação espacial d`água nas barragens. A condição da água das duas barragens foi modelada satisfatoriamente, razoável precisão e confiabilidade com os modelos estatístico e computacionais, para uma quantidade de parâmetros e dados ambientais, que embora limitados foram suficientes para realização deste trabalho. Ainda assim, fica evidente a eficiência e sucesso da utilização do Sistema Neurofuzzy (coeficiente de regressão de 0,608 a 0,925) que combina as vantagens das Redes Neurais e da Lógica Fuzzy em modelar o conjunto de dados da qualidade da água das barragens de Utinga e Bita. / The application of techniques such as the Principal Components Analysis (PCAs), Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs), Fuzzy Logic and Neuro-fuzzy Systems for investigating the changes in the water quality characteristics in the Utinga and Bita dams, which supplies raw water to the Suape Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWP), is of great importance due to the high number of variables used to define water quality. In this work were collected 10 water samples used to define water quality, in a period ranging from November 2007 to August 2012, with a total of 120 samples. Although the experimental dataset was limited, there were multiple efforts in gathering information from the Environmental Control Agencies. The results showed a tendency of degradation of the water properties in the dams studied due to the presence of microorganisms, salts and nutrients, responsible for the eutrophication process; result of the higher concentration of total phosphorus, Thermotolerant Coliforms and decrease in pH and DO, probably from the discharge of the sugarcane agroindustry and domestic waste. The PCAs characterised more than 76% of the samples collected, and consequently observing the existence of seasonal changes and small spatial variation of water levels in the dams. The water quality conditions in both dams were satisfactorily modelled, obtaining a reasonable precision and statistical and computational reliability for a certain amount of parameters and environmental data that, even though considered limited, were enough to run this trial. Nonetheless, it becomes evident the efficiency and success in using the Neuro- Fuzzy System (regression coefficient of 0.608 to 0.925), which combines the advantages of both the Neural Networks and Fuzzy Logic in modelling the water quality dataset in the Utinga and Bita dams.

Submitted by Erika Demachki (erikademachki@gmail.com) on 2017-03-29T20:09:57Z No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Eni Liudmiliza Leite Buma - 2017.pdf: 1928297 bytes, checksum: 00dfb2987c7dc920fba208a5861948fe (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Luciana Ferreira (lucgeral@gmail.com) on 2017-03-31T10:28:49Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Eni Liudmiliza Leite Buma - 2017.pdf: 1928297 bytes, checksum: 00dfb2987c7dc920fba208a5861948fe (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-03-31T10:28:49Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Eni Liudmiliza Leite Buma - 2017.pdf: 1928297 bytes, checksum: 00dfb2987c7dc920fba208a5861948fe (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-03-07 / Conselho Nacional de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico - CNPq / Water courses that pass through areas of production, whether agricultural, pasture or housing, are subject to discharge of municipal and industrial sewage systems. These waters can be directed to river basins and redistributed to networks of water treatment and public supply. Normally, surface raw water has high concentrations of total coliforms, thermotolerant coliforms and E. coli. However, the microbiological indicator of fecal contamination, E. coli, does not present specificity, limiting, therefore, the host identification causing fecal pollution in water stream. As an alternative, bacteria of the genus Bacteroides have been suggested as potential alternative indicators of fecal pollution. Bacteroides are strictly anaerobic, exclusive and specific to the human gastrointestinal tract, and are also present in homeothermic animals. Because its inability to withstand aerobic environments, Bacteroides are considered as promising indicators of recent fecal pollution. Their identification in water bodies is usually performed by the presence of the 16S rRNA genetic marker of the order Bacteroidales. The objective of this study was to evaluate the microbiological and physico-chemical quality of the water of the Ribeirão João Leite Basin, responsible to supply 50% of water to the city of Goiânia, as well as the evaluation of the 16S rRNA Bacteroidales marker as an indicator of human and / or animal fecal pollution in waters of this basin. For this purpose, 91 samples of surface freshwater were collected from 13 points located along the Ribeirão João Leite Hydrographic Basin extension. Also, human and animal fecal samples were collected to test the sensitivity and specificity of primers to trace the 16S rRNA Bacteroidales marker. Based on the CONAMA Resolution 357/2005 Class II for fresh water, 5.5% (5/91) of the samples had a turbidity level above > 100 NTU (119-180 NTU), while 33% presented values below <103 CFU / 100 mL for thermotolerant E. coli. The mean values were found to be between 1.24 x 103-5.03 x 104 CFU / 100 mL. The 16S rRNA Bacteroidales ruminant host marker was identified in points with high agricultural and cattle influence, on the other hand, the presence of the 16S rRNA Bacteroidales marker as an indicator of human fecal pollution was not detected in the 5 analyzed points. The results obtained will be able to collaborate with sanitary measures to reduce the level of turbidity and also to identify the source of the fecal contamination in these bodies of water, thus minimizing the risk of dissemination of waterborne diseases. / Cursos de água que atravessam áreas de produção, sejam elas agrícolas, de pastagens ou habitacional, estão sujeitos à captação de sistemas de esgoto municipais e industriais. Essas águas podem ser direcionadas a bacias hidrográficas e redistribuídas a redes de estação de tratamento de água e abastecimento público. Normalmente, águas de mananciais apresentam elevados níveis de concentrações de coliformes totais, coliformes termotolerantes e E. coli. Entretanto, o indicador microbiológico de poluição fecal E. coli, não apresenta especificidade, limitando, portanto, a identificação do hospedeiro causador da poluição fecal em determinada corrente de água. Como alternativa, as bactérias do gênero Bacteroides vêm sendo sugeridas como potenciais indicadores alternativos de poluição fecal. Bacteroides são estritamente anaeróbicas, exclusivas e específicas ao trato gastrointestinal humano, apresentando especificidade a animais homeotérmicos. Por serem incapazes de resistir a ambientes aeróbios são consideradas como promissores indicadores de poluição fecal recente. A sua identificação em corpos de água é geralmente realizada pela presença do marcador genético 16S rRNA da ordem Bacteroidales. Este estudo teve como objetivos avaliar a qualidade microbiológica e físico-química da água bruta superficial da Bacia Hidrográfica do Ribeirão João Leite, responsável por 50% de abastecimento da cidade de Goiânia, e também, a avaliação do marcador 16S rRNA Bacteroidales como indicador da fonte de poluição fecal humana e/ou animal em águas desta bacia. Para tal, foram coletadas 91 amostras de água bruta superficial de 13 pontos localizados ao longo da extensão da Bacia Hidrográfica do Ribeirão João Leite, assim como, amostras de matéria fecal humana e animal de modo a testar a sensibilidade e especificidade de oligonucleotídeos iniciadores para o rastreamento do marcador 16S rRNA Bacteroidales. Baseado na Resolução CONAMA 357/2005 Classe II para águas doces, 5,5% (5/91) das amostras apresentaram nível de turbidez acima de >100 NTU (119-180 NTU), enquanto que 33% apresentaram valores inferiores a <103 CFU/100 mL para E. coli termotolerante, sendo os valores médios encontrados entre 1,24 x 103–5,03 x 104 CFU/100 mL. O marcador 16S rRNA Bacteroidales hospedeiro bovino (ruminante) foi identificado em água bruta superficial dos pontos coletados com alta influência agropecuária, em contrapartida, dos 5 pontos analisados não foi detectado a presença do marcador 16S rRNA Bacteroidales como indicador de poluição fecal humana. Os resultados obtidos poderão colaborar com medidas sanitárias que visam a redução do nível da turbidez e na identificação da origem da contaminação microbiológica fecal nesses corpos d’água minimizando, desta forma, o risco de disseminação das doenças de veiculação hídrica

Komati Power Station has installed a membrane plant consisting of ultrafiltration, double pass reverse osmosis and continuous electro-deionisation to treat cooling tower blowdowns in order to produce demineralised water and to conduct sidestream chemistry control of the cooling water circuit. This plant has replaced the existing ion-exchange plant that was used for the production of demineralised water and thus serves to reduce the loading of mobile salts in the ash dam (90% reduction) by eliminating regeneration effluent from the ion-exchange plant. Due to oil contamination in the cooling water circuit (when oil from oil coolers leaks into the cooling water), the membrane plant was also designed to operate on raw water from either the Nooigdedacht or the Vygeboom Dam or a blend of both dams. This is considered to be an emergency intervention under abnormal conditions to prevent possible irreversible fouling of the membranes due to oil in the cooling water. The Nooigtedach Dam water contains high concentrations of organic matter and is also enriched with nutrients due to raw sewage influent into the Dam water. This poses a challenge with regard to treatment of the high fouling feed water on the membrane plant. Natural organic matter in water has the ability to foul reverse osmosis membranes. This adversely affects the operation of the reverse osmosis process. However, very little information is available regarding the fouling characteristics of natural organic material in the raw and cooling water at Komati Power Station for the reverse osmosis membranes. Therefore, a pilot study was undertaken to determine the influence of natural organic matter on membrane fouling, to optimise the process for the removal of natural organic matter and to assess the ability of two different reverse osmosis membranes to effectively treat the high fouling feed water at Komati Power Station. The ability of a polyethersulphone hollow-fibre ultrafiltration membrane system was first evaluated to remove natural organic matter in the feedwater, by conducting pilot tests, initially without coagulation of the raw water and thereafter with in-line coagulation for organics removal. Jar tests were conducted in the laboratory to determine the most suitable coagulant and dosage for turbidity and natural organic matter removal. Various coagulants were tested and, based on the results of the jar tests, a coagulant (U3000) was identified based on optimal removal of both total organic carbon and turbidity at a dosing level of 20 mg/L. During the operation of the ultrafiltration pilot plant, permeate flow; feed pressure and feed temperature were monitored. Performance of the ultrafiltration membrane was monitored in terms of flux versus time for operation with and without a coagulation process. The results indicated that there was very little total organic carbon removal (maximum removal of 4%) without coagulation and a slight decrease in flux. The flux declined as a result of fouling but could be recovered by performing hydraulic backwashes and CEB procedures. Permeate flux, however, could be maintained at about 90 Lmh (from 642 hours of operation). Since most of the organics passed through the ultrafiltration membrane, it was concluded that the loss in flux was due to colloidal fouling of the membrane. This was observed when the operation was carried out using raw water as feed as well as when cooling water was used. The total organic carbon removal increased to 30% when the plant was operated with inline coagulation. The flux remained relatively stable during the first 600 hours of operation and only decreased significantly during the last 200 hours of operation as a result of fouling. The reduction in flux prior to cleaning was less than the 15% (maximum flux decline of 9.9% during the test period) which is acceptable according to the industry norm of 15%. It appeared that flux could be maintained at around 90 Lmh which was about the same as when no coagulant was applied. The 30% total organic carbon reduction that was obtained was not sufficient to reduce the organics to the level of 6mg/L dissolved organic carbon that was specified by the membrane manufacturer for the standard brackish water reverse osmosis membrane. Two reverse osmosis membranes – the standard brackish water reverse osmosis membrane (BW30-2540) and the extra-low-fouling membrane (BW30XFR-2540) – were assessed in terms of their ability to remove dissolved organic carbon, ease of cleaning of the membrane and the ability to recover flux after cleaning. This was done to establish which membrane is more suited to Komati’s high-fouling feedwater. The evaluation of the performance of the two reverse osmosis membranes was conducted using pre-treated water (filtered water after in-line coagulation, anti-scalant and biocide dosing) as well as using water that was not pre-treated. During operation (under both conditions), the normalised permeate flux, conductivity, dissolved organic carbon and organics absorbing at UV254 were monitored. It was established that in terms of flux decline that the extra low-fouling membrane gave slightly superior performance to that of the standard membrane, achieving longer production runs (up to 5 days compared with 3 days achieved by the standard brackish water membrane) without requiring chemical cleaning. The low fouling membrane achieved better CWF recovery after the cleaning cycles (81.26% Lmh of the virgin membrane on the occasions when there was flux loss) compared to the standard membrane (restored to 77.35% of CWF of the virgin membrane) when using untreated feed water. This performance improved when pre-treated feed water was used and the low fouling membrane’s CWF regained after the CIP was 95.89% which was within the industry norm of a flux recovery of 95%, indicating that the CIP had been effective. It was determined that the TOC rejection of the low-fouling membrane was higher (average TOC rejection of 97%, maximum TOC rejection of 99%) than that of the standard membrane (average TOC rejection of 95.3%, maximum TOC rejection of 97%). Preliminary efforts to optimize the pre-treatment for organics removal in order to reduce organic loading for the RO membranes confirmed that the use of granular activated carbon and use of an organic scavenger resin might not be economically feasible due to the relatively quick TOC breakthrough (8910BV, approximately 18000BV and less than 18000BV for the Filtrasorb 300, Filtrasorb 400 and organic scavenger resin, respectively). Although further investigations should still be conducted, the preliminary results indicate that it would be beneficial to also identify other options that can be further investigated for optimization of organics removal at Komati Power Station. Decline in the normalised flux as well as the evidence of biofouling were witnessed during the pilot operation suggesting that the membranes were fouled. Autopsies were performed on both membranes to identify foulants responsible for the decline in flux that was observed during the pilot study. The results did not indicate an organic foulant on the membrane surface. Biofouling should however, be monitored in the main plant as this was suspected to have resulted in the flux decline during the pilot study. The low fouling membrane demonstrated a better capability to treat the Komati raw and cooling water and would be expected to achieve lower operating costs for the plant (CIP costs and membrane replacement costs) while achieving better organics removal and it is therefore recommended that the low-fouling membranes be used at Komati Power Station as they are superior to the standard membrane and the cost of the low-fouling membranes is comparable to that of the standard membrane. While this would provide somewhat better performance than that obtained with the standard brackish water membranes, it is proposed that further investigation into pre-treatment optimization for organics removal as well as more efficient cleaning solutions be investigated to improve the performance and economics of the main water treatment plant at Komati power Station. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2013. / gm2014 / Chemical Engineering / unrestricted

Poly- och perfluorerade alkylsubstanser (PFAS) är syntetiskt tillverkade kemikalier som omfattar cirka 4700 individuella ämnen. PFAS har använts sedan 1950-talet i ett antal applikationer som brandsläckningsskum, impregneringsmedel samt textilier, på grund av sina unika egenskaper att vara både vattenlöslig (hydrofila) och vattenavstötande (hydrofoba). Dessa egenskaper gör att göra att PFAS kan transporteras långa vägar. Dessutom är ämnets kol-fluorbindning en av det starkaste kemiska bindningar som gör dem mycket stabila och därför svårnedbrytbara i miljön. Många PFAS misstänkts vara skadliga och kan ansamlas i både djur och människor. Ett antal PFAS har visat sig ge negativa effekter på reproduktion, immunsystem, sköldkörtelhormoner och levern vid djurförsök. Vissa tas lättare upp av kroppen men det är oklart vilken påverkan exakt alla 4700 PFAS-ämnen har. Dessa potentiellt skadliga föroreningar upptäcks på flera ställen i Sverige och har redan resulterat i allvarliga problem för dricksvattenförsörjningen. Dagens reningsmetoder avlägsnar inte PFAS och i kombination med toxiska egenskaper och hög bioackumuleringspotential kan det bli farligt för både människor och miljö. Därför regleras summan av 11 PFAS-ämnen (summa-11) med en åtgärdsgräns på 90 ng/L för vattenverk i Sverige. Vissa vattenverk har tvingats sättas ur bruk på grund av för höga PFAS-koncentrationer i producerat dricksvatten. Kunskapen om källor till PFAS är fortfarande låg men utredning av flera potentiella källor pågår.  I detta arbete har ett antal PFAS-ämnen analyserats uppströms Glan, den sjö i Norrköping kommun som försörjer över 90 % av invånarna med dricksvatten. Syftet är att kartlägga och karaktärisera PFAS i Norrköpings råvattentäkt Glan med tillflöden för att få en ökad förståelse för potentiell påverkan på dricksvattenproduktion. Kartläggningen skedde genom provtagningar uppströms Borgs råvattenintag. Det samlades också in data från andra aktörer längre uppströms i vattensystemet längs Motala Ström, Stångån samt även i Glan. Provtagning skedde också vid Bråvalla som är ett sedan tidigare välkänt förorenat område i direkt anslutning till Glan. All data analyserades sedan med ett Kruskal-Wallis test. Studien visar 1) av 21 analyserade PFAS-ämnen detekterades PFHxS, PFOS, PFPeA, PFHxA, PFHpA, PFOA och PFBA i flest provpunkter 2) Både PFOS och PFOA hade högst koncentration i Motala ström av de tillflöden till Glan som undersökts 3) PFBA, visade högst koncentration i andra tillflöden än Motala Ström, Hällestaån, Ysundaviken, till Glan med okänd källa 4) Av alla inflöden till Glan uppmättes högst halter av summa-11 i Motala ström som också utgör det största tillflödet till Glan 5) Våtmarken vid Bråvalla är en potentiell PFAS-källa till Glan då koncentrationen i dessa provpunkter är mycket höga i jämförelse med övriga provpunkter. Däremot indikerar inte resultaten på att Bråvalla är en källa i dagsläget men kan bidra till framtida komplikationer för Borgs råvattentäkt pga. klimatförändringar. / Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are synthetically manufactured chemicals comprising about 4700 individual substances. PFAS has been used since the 1950s in a number of applications such as firefighting foam, impregnating agents and textiles, due to its unique properties of being both water-soluble (hydrophilic) and water-repellent (hydrophobic). These properties allow PFAS to be transported long distances. In addition, the substance's carbon-fluorine bond is one of the strongest chemical bonds that makes them very stable and therefore difficult to degrade in the environment. Many PFASs are suspected to be harmful and can accumulate in both animals and humans. A number of PFASs have been shown to have adverse effects on reproduction, immune systems, thyroid hormones and the liver in animal experiments. Some are more easily absorbed by the body, but it is unclear what effect exactly all 4700 PFAS substances have. These potentially harmful pollutants are discovered in several places in Sweden and have already resulted in serious problems for the drinking water supply. Today's purification methods do not remove PFAS and in combination with toxic properties and high bioaccumulation potential, it can be dangerous for both humans and the environment. Therefore, the sum of 11 PFAS substances (summa-11) is regulated with a limit value of 90 ng/L for waterworks in Sweden. Some waterworks have been forced out of service due to too high PFAS concentrations in produced drinking water. Knowledge of sources for PFAS is still low, but investigation of several potential sources is ongoing. In this study, a number of PFAS substances have been analyzed upstream of Glan, the lake in Norrköping municipality that supplies more than 90% of the inhabitants with drinking water. The aim is to map and characterize PFAS in Norrköping's water catchment Glan with inflows to gain an increased understanding of the potential impact on drinking water production. The mapping took place through sampling upstream of Borg's raw water intake. Data were also collected from other actors further upstream in the water system along Motala Ström, Stångån and also in Glan. Sampling also took place at Bråvalla, which is a previously well-known polluted area in direct connection to Glan. All data were then analyzed with a Kruskal-Wallis test. The study shows 1) of 22 analyzed PFAS substances, PFHxS, PFOS, PFPeA, PFHxA, PFHpA, PFOA and PFBA were detected in most test points 2) Both PFOS and PFOA had the highest concentration in Motala stream of all the inflows examined to Glan 3) PFBA showed the highest concentration in inflows other than Motala stream, Hällestaån, Ysundaviken, to Glan with unknown source 4) Of all inflows to Glan, the highest levels of summa-11 were measured in Motala stream which also constitutes the largest inflow to Glan 5) The wetland at Bråvalla is a potential PFAS source of Glan as the concentration in these test points is very high compared to other test points. However, the results do not indicate that Bråvalla is a source at present, but may contribute to future complications for Borg's raw water source due to climate change.

Thesis. (M. Tech. (Dept. of Biosciences, Faculty of Applied and Computer Sciences))--Vaal University of Technology, 2010 / Methods for detecting the presence of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts have been developed and continuous improvement is being done to improve the recovery rate of the target protozoa. Rand Water has adopted their method for isolation and detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts in water from United State Environmental Protection Agency (US-EPA) Method 1623, 1999. In 2005 changes were made by US-EPA to the Method 1623. A study was done to improve the performance of the Rand Water Method 06 (2007) used for isolation and detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts. Three methods namely: Rand Water Method 06 (2007), US-EPA Method 1623 (2005) and Drinking Water Inspectorate standard operating procedures (2003) were compared and key different steps in the methods were identified (wrist action speed, centrifuge speed, immunomagnetic separation procedures and addition of pre-treatment steps). Different experiments were conducted to verify and evaluate the difference between two wrist action shaker speeds, three different centrifuge speeds, two slightly different immunomagnetic separation procedures and when a pre-treatment step was included in the method. Three different types of water matrices (reagent grade water, drinking water and raw water) were used for the experiments and secondary validation. Data obtained from the experiments and secondary validation was statistically analyzed to determine whether there was a significant difference in the recovery of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts. Secondary validation of the Rand Water Method 06 (2007) was performed by implementing the study experiments‟ findings into the method. The results indicated an increase in the recovery rate of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts when data was compared with the previous secondary validation report. The mean recovery of Cryptosporidium oocysts in reagent grade water samples increased from 31% to 55%, drinking water samples increased from 28% to 44% and raw water decreased from 42% to 29%. The mean recovery of Giardia cysts in reagent grade water samples increased from 31% to 41%, drinking water samples increased from 28% to 46% and raw water decreased from 42% to 32%. Furthermore, even though the recovery rate of raw water decreased the use of pre-treatment buffer reduced the number of IMS performed per sample by reducing the pellet size. Enumeration of microscope slides was also easier as there was less background interference. The optimization of the Rand Water Method 06 (2007) was successful as the recovery rate of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts from water increased. All the changes that were verified and that increased the recovery rate were incorporated into the improved Rand Water Method 06.