Thesis (MScEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Nearly all South African abalone farms function on an intensive pump-ashore, flow-through system. Large volumes of sea water that are pumped ashore flow through abalone or kelp harvesting tanks and finally gravitate back to the ocean. If the effluent from an abalone farm can be desalinated without permanent membrane fouling, then sea water reverse osmosis (SWRO) technology can be integrated effectively with established abalone farms without having to increase the farms’ intake system capacities. Without the need to construct and maintain an intake system, the overall cost of desalination can be reduced. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the feasibility and viability of integrating a SWRO desalination plant with a typical South African abalone farm. The project focused on four areas of concern, namely: - characterisation of typical South African abalone farm water - SWRO desalination plant pilot study and membrane fouling behaviour - general operation of a typical abalone farm and its implications for desalination - cost estimates and implications for the integration of an SWRO desalination plant with an abalone farm During a nine-month on-site investigation, sea water turbidity was reduced by up to 43% from a mean value of 0.82 NTU in the influent stream to 0.47 NTU in the combined effluent stream from the abalone tanks. Even with spikes in the influent turbidity, the turbidity of the combined effluent from all abalone tanks (excluding tank flush water) remained below 1 NTU. Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in both the influent and combined effluent remained below 1 mg/litre. Ultrafiltration (UF) was selected as pre-treatment to the reverse osmosis (RO) in order to minimise potential fouling of the RO membranes. Membrane compaction of both the UF and RO membranes contributed significantly to initial flux losses – as much as 18% for the polyethersulfone (PESM) UF membranes and 20% for the thin film composite (TFC) polyamide RO membrane. However, this is comfortably in line with typical compaction values quoted in the literature. Without pre-flocculation, the UF was able to operate at a specific flux between 45 and 55 litre/m2/h (LMH) and recoveries ranging between 60 and 75%. Corresponding trans-membrane pressure (TMP) ranged between 0.59 and 0.76 bar. With ferric chloride pre-flocculation at a concentration of 3 mg/litre (as Fe3+) the UF could be operated at notably lower TMP values between 0.11 and 0.36 bar. These results indicate that provision should definitely be made for pre-flocculation when using UF as pre-treatment, despite the fact that the DOC concentrations and turbidity of the abalone farm effluent are quite low (DOC <1 mg/litre, NTU <1). It furthermore highlights the inability of DOC and turbidity alone to predict the membrane fouling potential of water. A better indicator of membrane fouling potential, albeit not perfect, is the modified fouling index (MFI0.45). This index follows a linear trend with foulant concentration and serves as a good indicator of the filterability of water. On-site measurements showed an increase in mean MFI0.45 values from 29 s/litre2 for the influent to 48 s/litre2 for the effluent from the abalone tanks, thereby confirming the need for pre-flocculation as part of UF pre-treatment. Chemically enhanced backwashing (CEB) of the UF membrane at least every 24 hours was found to be essential for its stable operation. Therefore, UF with pre-flocculation (3 mg/litre Fe3+) and regular CEB can be used effectively as pre-treatment method for the desalination of abalone farm effluent water. An RO ‘feed-and-bleed’ system was used to simulate the typical performance of the last membrane in a full-scale RO membrane bank. This RO membrane performed well with no signs of extreme fouling. The membrane produced a good quality permeate – for the last membrane in a membrane bank – reducing the TDS of the RO feed from 33 493 mg/litre to 969 mg/litre. These results compared well with simulated values by Reverse Osmosis System Analysis (ROSA; an RO simulator by DOW), indicating a TDS reduction from 33 271 mg/litre to 1 409 mg/litre at a feed pressure of 56 bar, and overall recovery of 44%. A steady performance of the RO membrane during the pilot study indicated that it is possible to desalinate abalone effluent water without notable permanent membrane fouling. A stable normalised flux rate of 8 LMH was achieved and RO membrane integrity remained intact with a salt rejection that ranged from 98.0 to 98.5%. No sudden reduction in permeate flux was observed as a result of fouling by unknown constituents present in the UF permeate. DBNPA (a non-oxidising disinfectant) was dosed once per week at a concentration of 10 – 30 mg/litre for 30 minutes. Scaling was controlled effectively by means of an antiscalant dosed at a concentration of 11 – 12 mg/litre in the feed stream. The CIP frequency was not optimised but a CIP frequency of once every 6 – 8 weeks appeared to be more than adequate to prevent permanent membrane fouling Advantages of integrating an SWRO desalination plant with a South African abalone farm include: - no lengthy and costly environmental impact assessment (EIA) is required to build a new intake system - shared capital and operational cost of intake system - dual incentive to keep constant good quality water flowing through the farm - early warnings regarding occurrences such as algal bloom and red bait - shared operational and management cost to keep pipelines clean - electricity saved (pumps for intake system) Disadvantages of integrating an SWRO desalination plant with a South African abalone farm include: - will require diverting of the abalone tank wash water from regular effluent - possible water ‘down-times’ due to maintenance operations on abalone farm Based on information from the literature the fixed capital cost depreciation rate (FCCDR) typically contributes approximately 40% and the operation and maintenance (O&M) cost typically contributes 60% to the unit production cost (UPC) of desalinated water. Furthermore, a SWRO desalination plant’s intake system can contribute between 5% and 33% to the FCCDR, depending on the nature and design of the plant. Consequently, the intake system can contribute between 2% and 13% of the UPC of desalinated sea water. This implies possible cost savings of between R0.15/m3 and R2.37/m3 for the production of fresh water (depending on site-specific design factors) when desalinating sea water effluent from on-shore abalone tanks. Integration of an SWRO desalination plant with a South African abalone farm is feasible and viable, provided that the necessary steps and precautions are taken to ensure a smooth and stable operation of the SWRO desalination plant. Cost savings on the part of all the stakeholders are possible if the correct contract can be negotiated. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Byna alle Suid Afrikaanse perlemoenplase funksioneer op ‘n seewater deurvloeistelsel. Groot volumes seewater word aan wal gepomp en vloei deur die perlemoen of kelp-oes tenks. Hierdie water vloei dan uiteindelik terug na die oseaan as gevolg van swaartekrag. Indien die afvalwater van die perlemoenplase ontsout kan word sonder permanente membraanbevuiling kan seewater tru-osmose (SWTO)-tegnologie effektief met gevestigde perlemoenplase geïntegreer word sonder om die plase se water inname-stelsels se kapasiteite te vergroot. Sonder die behoefte aan uitbreiding en instandhouding van ‘n water inname-stelsel by so ‘n plaas behoort die totale koste van ontsouting aansienlik minder te wees. Die doel van hierdie studie was dus om die uitvoerbaarheid en lewensvatbaarheid van ‘n integrasie van ‘n SWTO ontsoutingsaanleg met ‘n tipiese Suid Afrikaanse perlemoenplaas te ondersoek. Ten einde dit te doen, het die projek op vier areas van belang gefokus, naamlik: - karakterisering van tipiese Suid-Afrikaanse perlemoenplaas water - SWTO ontsoutingsaanleg loodsstudie en membraan bevuilingsgedrag - algemene bedryf van ‘n tipiese perlemoenplaas en die implikasies vir ontsouting - kosteberamings en koste-implikasies met betrekking tot die integrasie van ‘n SWTO ontsoutingsaanleg met ‘n perlemoenplaas Gedurende ‘n nege maande op-perseel ondersoek is seewater troebelheid verminder met tot 43% van 'n gemiddelde waarde van 0.82 NTU in die invloeistroom tot 0.47 NTU in die gekombineerde afvalwaterstroom wat die tenks verlaat. Selfs met skerp wisseling in die invloeistroom troebelheid, bly afvalwaterstroom troebelheid deurgaans onder 1 NTU met die uitsondering van tenk spoelwater. Opgeloste organiese koolstof (OOK) in beide die invloeistroom en die gekombineerde afvalwaterstroom het deurgaans onder 1 mg/liter gebly. Ultrafiltrasie (UF) is gebruik as voorbehandeling vir die tru-osmose (TO) om sodoende potensiële bevuiling van TO membrane te minimaliseer. Membraan kompaksie van beide die UF en TO het merkbaar bygedra tot aanvanlike deurvloeiverliese – so veel as 18% vir die poli-etersulfoon (PESM) UF membrane en 20% vir die dun film saamgestelde (DFS) poli-amied TO membraan. Hierdie is egter gerieflik binne die tipiese kompaksiewaardes soos aangehaal in die literatuur. Sonder flokkulasie was die UF in staat tot temperatuur aangepaste deurvloeitempo van tussen 45 en 55 liter/m2/h (LMH) teen herwinningstempo’s tussen 60 en 75%. Ooreenstemmende trans-membraandrukkings (TMD) het gewissel tussen 0.59 en 0.76 bar. Met ysterchloried voor-flokkulasie teen 'n konsentrasie van 3 mg/liter (as Fe3+) kon die UF teen merkbaar laer TMD waardes bedryf word – tussen 0.11 en 0.36 bar. Hierdie resultate dui daarop dat daar beslis voorsiening vir pre-flokkulasie gemaak moet word wanneer UF as voorbehandeling gebruik word, ten spyte van die feit dat die OOK konsentrasie en troebelheid van die afvalwater van die perlemoenplaas redelik laag is (OOK <1 mg / liter, troebelheid <1 NTU). Verder lig dit die onvermoë uit om OOK en troebelheid alleen te gebruik om membraanbevuilingspotensiaal van water te voorspel. ‘n Beter aanwyser van membraanbevuilingspotensiaal, alhoewel nie perfek nie, is die aangepaste bevuilingsindeks (MFI0.45). Hierdie bevuilingsindeks volg ‘n lineêre neiging met die konsentrasie van onsuiwerhede en dien as ‘n goeie aanwyser van die filtreerbaarheid van water. Op-perseel metings het getoon dat ‘n toename in gemiddelde MFI0.45 waardes van 29 s/litre2 vir die invloeistroom tot 48 s/litre2 vir die afvalstroom van die perlemoentenks die behoefte vir voor-flokkulasie as deel van UF voorbehandeling bevestig. Chemies versterkte terugspoeling (CVT) van die UF membrane ten minste elke 24 uur is noodsaaklik gevind ten einde bestendige werking te verseker. Dus kan UF met voor-flokkulasie (3 mg/liter Fe3 +) en gereelde CVT effektief as voorbehandeling metode vir die ontsouting van perlemoenplaas afvalwater gebruik word. ‘n TO ‘voer-en-bloeistelsel’ is gebruik om die tipiese prestasie van die laaste membraan in ‘n volskaalse TO membraanbank te simuleer. Hierdie TO membraan het goed presteer sonder tekens van buitensporige membraanbevuiling. Vir die laaste membraan in ‘n membraanbank het die membraan goeie gehalte finale water gelewer – ‘n vermindering van die totaal opgeloste stowwe (TOS) van die TO voerwater van 33 493 mg/liter tot 969 mg/liter is behaal. Hierdie resultate het goed vergelyk met gesimuleerde waardes deur Reverse Osmosis Analysis System (ROSA, ‘n TO simulator deur DOW) wat ‘n TOS vermindering van 33 271 mg/liter tot 1 409 mg/liter by ‘n voerdruk van 56 bar en ‘n algehele herwinningstempo van 44% aandui. ‘n Bestendige werking van die TO membraan tydens die loodsstudie het getoon dat dit moontlik is om perlemoenplaas afvalwater te ontsout sonder merkwaardige permanente membraanbevuiling. 'n Stabiele genormaliseerde deurvloeitempo van 8 LMH is bereik en TO membraan integriteit het ongeskonde gebly met 'n sout verwerping wat gewissel het van 98.0 tot 98.5%. Geen skielike afname in finale water deurvloeitempo is waargeneem as gevolg van bevuiling deur onbekende onsuiwerhede in die UF finale water nie. DBNPA (‘n nie-oksiderende ontsmettingsmiddel) is een keer per week teen ‘n ‘n konsentrasie van 10 – 30 mg / liter vir 30 minute gedoseer. Mineraal skaalvorming is effektief beheer deur die dosering van ‘n anti-skaalmiddel teen 11 – 12 mg/liter in die TO voerstroom. Die skoonmaak-in-plek (SIP) frekwensie is nie ge-optimeer nie, maar ‘n SIP een keer elke 6 – 8 weke is meer as voldoende gevind om mikrobiese bevuiling te voorkom. Voordele van die integrasie van 'n SWTO ontsoutingsaanleg met 'n Suid-Afrikaanse perlemoenplaas sluit die volgende in: - geen lang en duur omgewings impak ontleding (OIO) is nodig vir die bou van ‘n nuwe inname-stelsel nie - gedeelde kapitaal en operasionele koste van inname-stelsel - tweeledige aansporing om konstant goeie gehalte watervloei deur die plaas te verseker - vroegtydige waarskuwings ten opsigte van gebeurtenisse soos rooigety - gedeelde bedryfs- en bestuurskoste om voerpype skoon te hou Nadele van die integrasie van 'n SWTO ontsoutingsaanleg met 'n Suid-Afrikaanse perlemoenplaas sluit die volgende in: - vereis herleiding van perlemoentenk spoelwater weg van gereelde afvalwater - moontlike watervloei-aftye weens instandhoudingsbedrywighede op die perlemoenplaas Gebaseer op inligting uit die literatuur dra die vaste kapitaal koste waardeverminderings-koers (VKKWK) gewoonlik ongeveer 40% en die bedryfs- en instandhoudingskoste (B&I) ongeveer 60% by tot die produksiekoste per eenheid (PKE) van ontsoute water.Verder kan ’n SWTO ontsoutingsaanleg se inname-stelsel tussen 5% en 33% tot die VKKWK bydra afhangende van die aard en ontwerp van die aanleg. Gevolglik kan die inname-stelsel tussen 2% en 13% tot die PKE van ontsoute seewater bydra. Dit impliseer ‘n moontlike kostebesparing van tussen R0.15/m3 en R2.37/m3 vir die produksie van vars water wanneer die afvalwater van perlemoentenks ontsout word. Integrasie van 'n SWTO ontsoutingsaanleg met 'n Suid-Afrikaanse perlemoenplaas is uitvoerbaar en lewensvatbaar indien die nodige stappe en voorsorgmaatreëls geneem is om ‘n vlot en bestendige werking van die SWTO ontsoutingsaanleg te verseker. Kostebesparings vir alle belanghebbendes (beleggers) is moontlik indien daar oor die korrekte kontrak onderhandel kan word.

Les procédés d'osmose inverse (OI) permettent la production d'eau recyclée de très haute qualité grâce à l'élimination de contaminants organiques et inorganiques et de micro-organismes. Le suivi du bon fonctionnement de ce procédé est nécessaire pour valider la rétention des virus pathogènes afin de protéger la santé des usagers. La présence de minéraux et matières organiques dans les effluents rend inévitable le colmatage des membranes lors de leur fonctionnement et diminue ainsi leur performance. Afin d'éviter et d'éliminer ces colmatages, les stations de traitements des eaux utilisent des produits chimiques. Ces derniers vont modifier les performances globales des membranes en polyamide comme par exemple la diminution de la perméabilité à l'eau, et plus particulièrement les performances de rétention des virus, or l'ensemble de ces perturbations n'est que très peu compris et donc peu maitrisé. L'abattement des virus par l'OI sur des membranes intègres ou modifiées (ex : colmatage) ont donc été déterminés en mesurant la rétention d'un virus modèle de type phage MS2 et de substituts comme les sels (mesurés par conductivité), la rhodamine-WT (R-WT) ou les sulfates. La conductivité est, en effet, la technique de contrôle standard dans les stations de traitement des eaux (échelle industrielle).Le premier objectif de ce travail est d'évaluer l'utilisation d'un autre paramètre, les matières organiques dissoutes (DOM) comme nouveau substitut de virus et de déterminer l'impact du dysfonctionnement des procédés d'OI sur l'abattement des DOM et des sels à l'échelle industrielle. Les DOM peuvent en effet également être utilisées comme indicateur de qualité des eaux en fonction de leurs compositions et de leurs concentrations. L'abattement des DOM est donc testé comme nouvelle technique de surveillance afin de distinguer les fuites des changements de performance des membranes. Il est conclu que les DOM peuvent être utilisées comme nouvelle technique de contrôle. De plus, une variation de l'abattement des DOM peut aider à identifier des fuites de manière plus robuste que par l'abattement des sels. Le deuxième objectif est de déterminer l'effet des défauts membranaires sur les abattements d'un virus modèle (phage MS2) et de quatre substituts (R-WT, DOM, sulfate et sels) à l'échelle de systèmes de laboratoire. Deux systèmes à flux longitudinal est utilisés : une membrane plane et un module à spirale. Dans un premier temps, l'effet du colmatage sur les abattements de ces différents virus et substituts est étudié. Le colmatage organique, créé en utilisant un mélange de matières organiques, a pour effet d'augmenter de plus de 0,1 log les abattements de la R-WT, des sels et des DOM. Cette augmentation générale peut être due au blocage des cavités de la membrane et/ou par la sorption des substituts sur les matières organiques.Le colmatage inorganique, créé en utilisant un mélange de sels, n'a pas d'effet sur le rejet des substituts sauf pour les sels qui montre un comportement différent entre les deux systèmes. Dans le système à membrane plane, la couche inorganique permet d'augmenter le passage des sels à travers la membrane. Par opposition, il n'y a pas d'effet sur leur abattement avec le module à spirale. Cette variation entre les deux systèmes peut être causée par la différence de configuration (module à spirale contre membrane plane). Dans un deuxième temps, l'effet du chlore (modes passif et actif) sur la rétention de ces cinq composés est mesuré. Après un contact de 9000 ppm.h de NaOCl à pH 7, la surface membranaire change chimiquement. La formation de liaison Cl dans la couche en polyamide et la rupture des liaisons NH provoquent l'augmentation de la perméabilité à l'eau et diminuent l'abattement de l'ensemble des substituts. Malgré une forte diminution de 1,2 log de l'abattement en sel, l'abattement minimum du phage MS2 reste de 3 log. / One of the major applications of reverse osmosis (RO) process is the production of high quality recycled water by providing a barrier to remove organic and inorganic contaminants as well as pathogens including viruses. In order to protect public health, validation and monitoring of the RO process integrity are necessary to ensure its correct operation. During operation a certain degree of fouling is inevitable and can reduce RO membrane performance. Thus, chemicals are often used in water treatment plants to prevent or remove the membrane fouling. However, these chemicals can modify the integrity of the polyamide layer on RO membrane overtime. Up-to-date, the impact of membrane's physical change on its virus removal efficiency cause by the chemical use during operation is still not well understood.A minimum virus removal efficiency of intact and impaired (e.g. by fouling) RO membranes can be ascertained by measuring the rejection of MS2 phage and virus surrogates such as salt as measured by conductivity, rhodamine-WT (R-WT) or sulphate. However, conductivity measurement is the only full-scale standard monitoring technique. The removal of dissolved organic matter (DOM), which has been used as an indicator of water quality, can possibly be used for this purpose.The first objective of this work was to assess the suitability of DOM as a virus surrogate and to determine the impact of process failure on salt and DOM rejection in full-scale plants. A change of the conductivity does not necessarily mean that the membrane integrity has been breached. Thus, DOM monitoring has been tested and combined with the conductivity monitoring in order to distinguish between leaks and changes in membrane performances. It was concluded that DOM could be used as new monitoring technique. Moreover, a variation of DOM rejection can help identifying leaks better than just conductivity profiling alone.The second objective was to determine the effect of membrane impairments on the rejection of one model virus (MS2 phage) and four virus surrogates (R-WT, DOM, sulphate and salt) using lab-scale RO set-ups. To this aim, two different cross-flow set-ups were used: a flat-sheet and a single 2.5” spiral-wound module.Firstly, the effects of organic fouling and scaling on the rejection of model virus and virus surrogates were studied separately. Organic fouling was created using a mix of organic foulants. The result of this study showed an increase of the rejection by more than 0.1 log for R-WT, salt and DOM. The general increase of the surrogates' rejection might be due to the blocking of cavities of the polyamide membrane and/or to the sorption of surrogates to the fouling layer, which was observed by different autopsy techniques.Scaling was created using a mix of inorganic salts in order to reconstitute the composition of a RO feed water and avoiding the presence of organic foulants. Scaling was found to have no impact on the rejection of all tested virus surrogates except for salt. Salt rejection showed a change of behaviour between different set-ups: with the 2.5” module set-up the inorganic layer led to a stabilisation of the salt rejection, whereas the salt rejection increased with the flat-sheet set-up. This could be explained by the variations of the systems configuration (i.e. spiral module versus flat-sheet, feed spacer height, etc.).Secondly, the long-term impact of membrane ageing by exposure to chlorine, either active under filtration or passive by soaking, on the rejection of the model virus and four surrogates was studied. After a contact time of 9000 ppm∙h NaOCl at pH 7, the membrane surface chemistry changed. The introduction of chlorine in the membrane chemistry and the breakage of amide bonds caused an increase of the water permeability and a decrease of the model virus and virus surrogates rejection.

Um método baseado na extração de rRNA, seguido de RT-PCR rRNA 16S, clonagem e ARDRA foi otimizado e validado para a identificação das bactérias ativas em biofilmes. O método foi analisado primeiro com consórcios artificiais de três organismos. As etapas de clonagem e RT não causaram variações importantes na composição destes consórcios, do contrário da etapa de PCR, onde foi necessária a redução de 30 para 10 ciclos para limitar a distorção da proporção de templates. A análise de biofilmes reais indicou que clones dominantes podem ser identificados com o critério de ocorrência de >2% na biblioteca, mas que a reprodutibilidade de análises ainda é insatisfatória, possivelmente devido a fatores como a micro heterogeneidade espacial do biofilme, viés na reação de PCR e formação de mais de um clone de ARDRA por organismo. O armazenamento do biofilme a -20 °C por 2 meses não levou à alterações expressivas em sua composição. O perfil de clones detectado com o kit (Mo Bio) de extração de RNA foi muito diferente do perfil detectado com o método otimizado neste trabalho. / A method based on extraction of rRNA, followed by RT-PCR of 16S rRNA, cloning and ARDRA was optimized and validated for identification of bacteria active in biofilms. The method was first tested with artificial three-membered consortia. Cloning and RT did not lead to significant changes in the composition of the artificial consortia, but a reduction in cycle number in the PCR reaction from 30 to 10 was necessary for limiting the distortion in the proportion of amplicons relative to that of the templates. Analysis of real biofilms revealed that clones from active organisms occurred in frequencies >2% in the clone library, but reproducibility of analysis was unsatisfactory, probably due to factors such as the spatial heterogeneity of colonization of biofilms by microbes, PCR bias and more than one ARDRA clone per organism. Storage of biofilm samples at -20 °C for 2 months did not lead to important changes in composition. Very different clone profiles were obtained in the analysis of the same biofilm sample with the optimized method and with a kit (Mo Bio) for extraction of RNA.

Made available in DSpace on 2017-07-20T13:42:00Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Juliano Almeida.pdf: 2689795 bytes, checksum: e2c63ba0cfcdfb76d39a3d5e44e5dcf9 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-04-20 / Considering the shortage of fresh water availability and an increased demand for water in the world, including Brazil, one of the alternatives for water supply are the water desalination system, which remove salts from brackish or seawater. The objective of this study was to evaluate the efficiency of treated water desalination system with production capacity of 1.0 m3 h-1 of treated water, installed in a water treatment plant of Sanepar (Water and Sanitation Company of the State of Parana), in Praia de Leste located in the coast of the state of Paraná, Brazil. In this study, the seawater was diluted with fresh water to make brackish water. The brackish water was prepared from the water mixture of the Pombas River, source of fresh water supply to the region, and sea water. The mixtures were performed to obtain concentrations of 1000 and 1500 mg L-1 of total dissolved solids (TDS). The system was composed of ultrafiltration (UF) as a pre-treatment to reverse osmosis (RO). Experiments were performed during 15 days for each TDS concentration of brackish water and TDS removal efficiencies were 99.0 and 99.1%, respectively. Besides TDS, other water quality parameters such as: electrical conductivity, turbidity, apparent colour, alkalinity, total hardness, calcium, magnesium, chlorides, sulphates and pH were monitored. Oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) and osmotic pressure, filtration rate and membrane recovery rate were also measured for the RO. The pilot plant system could remove all water quality parameters studied. / Com a escassez da disponibilidade de água doce e o aumento da demanda de água no mundo e também no Brasil, uma das alternativas para o suprimento de água são os sistemas de dessalinização de água, que removem os sais da água salobra ou salgada. Este trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar a eficiência de um sistema piloto de dessalinização de água salobra com capacidade de produção de 1,0 m3 h-1 de água tratada, instalado na estação de tratamento de água (ETA) da Sanepar, no balneário de Praia de Leste, no litoral do estado do Paraná. A água salobra foi preparada a partir da mistura da água bruta do Rio das Pombas, manancial que abastece o balneário, e água do mar. As misturas foram realizadas até obter concentrações de 1000 e 1500 ± 100 mg L-1 de sólidos dissolvidos totais (SDT). O sistema foi composto de ultrafiltração como pré-tratamento à osmose reversa. Os experimentos foram realizados durante o período de 15 dias para cada concentração de SDT da água salobra obtendo-se remoções de 99,0 e 99,1%, para 1500 ± 100 mg L-1 e 1000 ± 100 mg L-1, respectivamente. Além dos SDT, foram avaliados outros parâmetros de qualidade da água como: condutividade elétrica, turbidez, cor aparente, alcalinidade, dureza total, cálcio, magnésio, cloretos, sulfatos, pH e temperatura. Durante os experimentos foram avaliados potencial de oxirredução (ORP) e a pressão osmótica, a taxa de filtração e a taxa de recuperação na membrana de osmose reversa. O sistema de ultrafiltração foi mais eficiente na remoção de turbidez e cor aparente, sendo que o sistema de osmose reversa apresentou melhor eficiência na remoção de sólidos dissolvidos totais.

O objetivo deste estudo foi analisar o desempenho de um sistema de captação e tratamento de água do rio Sarapuí, por meio de uma estação de tratamento composta por um sistema de pré-tratamento convencional, ligado a um sistema de separação por membranas de osmose inversa, no Município de Belford Roxo RJ, instalado para fornecer água de processo a instalações industriais. Foi verificado que a água captada encontra-se em condição bastante degradada e que a unidade de tratamento removeu, em média, 97% do teor dos poluentes presentes na água, enquadrando-a nos parâmetros requeridos pelo processo industrial. Foi possível comprovar que o processo de separação por osmose inversa pode ser utilizado em escala industrial, proporcionando ganhos econômicos consideráveis, além de evitar o consumo de água potável para fins de processos industriais e, ainda, contribuir para a retirada de carga orgânica de uma fonte degradada / The objective of this study was to analyze the performance of a system to capture and treat water from Sarapuí river through a treatment system consisting of a conventional pré-treatment stage, linked to a reverse osmosis separation system membranes, in the city of Belford Roxo - RJ, installed to provide process water for industrial plants. It was found that the water is captured in highly degraded condition and the treatment plant removed an average of 97% of the pollutants in the water, fitting the parameters required by the industrial process. It could be demonstrated that the separation process by reverse osmosis can be used on an industrial scale, providing significant economic gains, and avoid the consumption of potable water for industrial processes and also contribute to the removal of organic pollutants from a degraded source

<p>Deponijski gas koji nastaje kao rezultat anaerobnih procesa unutar<br />otpada na deponiji može da se iskoristi kao obnovljivi izvor<br />energije, smanjujući ujedno i zagađenje vazduha. Tretman procedne vode<br />u savremenim postrojenjima za prečišćavanje reverznom osmozom daje<br />neželjeni ostatak &ndash; koncentrat, koji se uobičajeno recirkuliše na<br />deponiju kao vid tretmana. Ova disertacija se bavi uticajem<br />recirkulacije na produkciju deponijskog gasa, kako bi se omogućila<br />bolja upravljivost i predikcija čitavog procesa upravljanja otpadom<br />sa ciljem održanja stabilne proizvodnje deponijskog gasa i povećanja<br />mogućnosti njegovog iskorišćenja u termo-energetskim postrojenjima.</p> / <p>Landfill gas resulting from the anaerobic processes in the waste at the landfill<br />can be used as a renewable energy source, reducing both air<br />pollution. Treatment of leachate in modern plants for the purification using<br />reverse osmosis gives unwanted residue - concentrate, which is typically<br />recirculated back to the landfill as a form of its treatment. This thesis deals<br />with the influence of recirculation in the production of landfill gas, to allow for<br />better handling and prediction of entire process of waste management in<br />order to maintain stable production of landfill gas and increasing<br />opportunities for its utilization in thermal and power plants.</p>

The ability to produce potable water economically is the primary focus of seawater desalination research. There are numerous methods to desalinate water, including reverse osmosis, multi-stage flash distillation, and multi-effect evaporation. These methods cost more than potable water produced from natural resources; hence an attempt is made in this research project to produce potable water using a modified high-efficiency jet ejector in vapor-compression distillation. The greater efficiency of the jet ejector is achieved by properly mixing propelled and motive streams. From experiments conducted using air, the pressure rise across the jet ejector is better in case of one or two mixing vanes and the highest back pressure (pinch valve closed 83.33%). At other pinch valve closings, the air velocity through the jet ejector was high, so the extra surface area from the mixing vanes caused excessive friction and lowered the efficiency.

Fresh water resources in many of the world's oil producing regions, such as western Texas, are scarce, while produced water from oil wells is plentiful, though unfit for most applications due to high salinity and other contamination. Disposing of this water is a great expense to oil producers. This research seeks to advance a technology developed to treat produced water by reverse osmosis and other means to render it suitable for agricultural or industrial use, while simultaneously reducing disposal costs. Pilot testing of the process thus far has demonstrated the technology's capability to produce good-quality water, but process optimization and control were yet to be fully addressed and are focuses of this work. Also, the use of renewable resources (wind and solar) are analyzed as potential power sources for the process, and an overview of reverse osmosis membrane fouling is presented. A computer model of the process was created using a dynamic simulator, Aspen Dynamics, to determine energy consumption of various process design alternatives, and to test control strategies. By preserving the mechanical energy of the concentrate stream of the reverse osmosis membrane, process energy requirements can be reduced several fold from that of the current configuration. Process control schemes utilizing basic feedback control methods with proportional-integral (PI) controllers are proposed, with the feasibility of the strategy for the most complex process design verified by successful dynamic simulation. A macro-driven spreadsheet was created to allow for quick and easy cost comparisons of renewable energy sources in a variety of locations. Using this tool, wind and solar costs were compared for cities in regions throughout Texas. The renewable energy resource showing the greatest potential was wind power, with the analysis showing that in windy regions such as the Texas Panhandle, wind-generated power costs are approximately equal to those generated with diesel fuel.

The ability to produce potable water economically is the primary focus of seawater desalination research. There are numerous methods to desalinate water, including reverse osmosis, multi-stage flash distillation, and multi-effect evaporation. These methods cost more than potable water produced from natural resources; hence an attempt is made in this research project to produce potable water using a modified high-efficiency jet ejector in vapor-compression distillation. The greater efficiency of the jet ejector is achieved by properly mixing propelled and motive streams. From experiments conducted using air, the pressure rise across the jet ejector is better in case of one or two mixing vanes and the highest back pressure (pinch valve closed 83.33%). At other pinch valve closings, the air velocity through the jet ejector was high, so the extra surface area from the mixing vanes caused excessive friction and lowered the efficiency.

The market for polyamide desalination membranes is expected to continue to grow during the coming decades. Purification of alternative water sources will also be necessary to meet growing water demands. Purification of produced water, a byproduct of oil and gas production, is of interest due to its dual potential to provide water for beneficial use as well as to reduce wastewater disposal costs. However, current polyamide membranes are prone to fouling, which decreases water flux and shortens membrane lifetime. This research explored surface modification using poly(ethylene glycol) diglycidyl ether (PEGDE) to improve the fouling resistance of commercial polyamide membranes. Characterization of commercial polyamide membrane performance was a necessary first step before undertaking surface modification studies. Membrane performance was found to be sensitive to crossflow testing conditions. Concentration polarization and feed pH strongly influenced NaCl rejection, and the use of continuous feed filtration led to higher water flux and lower NaCl rejection than was observed for similar tests performed using unfiltered feed. Two commercial polyamide membranes, including one reverse osmosis and one nanofiltration membrane, were modified by grafting PEGDE to their surfaces. Two different PEG molecular weights (200 and 1000) and treatment concentrations (1% (w/w) and 15% (w/w)) were studied. Water flux decreased and NaCl rejection increased with PEGDE graft density ([microgram]/cm2), although the largest changes were observed for low PEGDE graft densities. Surface properties including hydrophilicity, roughness and charge were minimally affected by surface modification. The fouling resistance of modified and unmodified membranes was compared in crossflow filtration studies using model foulant solutions consisting of either a charged surfactant or an oil in water emulsion containing n-decane and a charged surfactant. Several PEGDE-modified membranes demonstrated improved fouling resistance compared to unmodified membranes of similar initial water flux, possibly due to steric hindrance imparted by the PEG chains. Fouling resistance was higher for membranes modified with higher molecular weight PEG. Fouling was more extensive for feeds containing the cationic surfactant, potentially due to electrostatic attraction with the negatively charged membranes. However, fouling was also observed in the presence of the anionic surfactant, indicating hydrodynamic forces are also responsible for fouling. / text