In this study cost-benefits problems concerning the knapsack problem of limited resources is studied and how this relates to an attacker perspective when choosing defense strategies. This is accomplished by adopting a cost-benefit method and merging it with game theory. The cost-benefit method chosen for this study is the Analytical Hierarchy Process and from the field of game theory the Bayesian Nash Equilibrium is used. The Analytical Hierarchy Process allows the user to determine internally comparable weights between elements, and to bring in a security dimension to the Analytical Hierarchy Process a sub category consisting of confidentiality, integrity and availability is used. To determine the attacker strategy and, in effect, determine the best defense strategy the Bayesian Nash Equilibrium is used.

<p>A variety of radiation sources exist at the Department of Radiology and the Department of Nuclear Medicine at Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge. Radiation sources can also be found in areas outside of these departments due to the wide use of mobile xray machines and fluoroscopic c-arm equipment and also due to the movement of patients that have received diagnostic or therapeutic doses of radionuclides.</p><p>In a proposal for a new legislation from the Swedish Radiation Protection Authority (SSI), which was later issued as legislation SSI FS 2005:6, the effective doses of the general public from a practice using ionising radiation need to be kept below stated limit of 0.1 mSv/year. This project was performed to verify the dose limit for individuals of the general public in the above mentioned practices.</p><p>Long-term measurements with TL-dosimeters were utilised to carry out the environmental monitoring of the areas throughout the Departments of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine. To assess the contribution of ionising radiation from rooms housing mobile fluoroscopic c-arm equipment to surrounding areas, a tissue equivalent phantom of size (30×30×20 cm3) was employed to simulate a patient and the scattered radiation was monitored by using area monitors, such as portable proportional counters. The annual effective doses were calculated in terms of personal dose equivalent as well as ambient dose equivalent monitored using TL-dosimeters and area monitors, respectively. The stated limit of 0.1 mSv/year to the general public was verified by risk analysis.</p><p>An attempt to create a method for determining the amount of radiation shielding in terms of lead equivalence in walls, doors, protective glasses of manoeuvre rooms and cupboards of diagnostic x-ray labs was also performed using a radiation point source of 99mTc and a NaI scintillation detector. Depending on the accuracy in the measurements the amount of lead deviated slightly from the expected 2 mm value based on the former legislation SSI FS 1991:1.</p>

<p>This thesis focuses on a black-tailed godwit (<i>Limosa limosa</i>) population, consisting of 35-40 pairs, that breeds on a grazed shore meadow on SE Gotland, Sweden. The small size of the population makes it more prone to extinction due to chance events, than a larger population.</p><p>The godwits showed microhabitat preferences when choosing nest sites. Godwit nests had higher vegetation over the nest cup, lower surrounding (1-3 m) vegetation and different plant species composition, as compared to random sites. Breeding near conspecifics or other wader species, especially lapwings (<i>Vanellus vanellus</i>) and further away from potential predator perches were the most important factors in decreasing nest predation. A comparison between different shore meadows along the east coast of the island revealed that large, open areas suffered less from nest predation. Thus, shore meadows suitable for breeding godwits should be large and without trees or other predator perches and have a grazing regime that favours variation in vegetation height.</p><p>Over 80% of previously ringed adults returned each year, but very few birds ringed as chicks were recovered. Hatching success was 55-60% for all observed nests. To predict the future of the current population, demographic data were used in an ecological risk analysis. The simulations showed that the Gotlandic population will not survive the coming 40 years without immigration.</p><p>Black-tailed godwits are divided into three subspecies. Genetic analyses (mtDNA) revealed that all subspecies had unique haplotypes and there was a clear geographic structure among subspecies. Within the <i>limosa</i> subspecies, godwits on Gotland and Öland showed a high proportion of rare haplotypes, but no genetic variation was found in Dutch birds. These results imply that black-tailed godwits on Gotland and Öland have high conservation value.</p>

This thesis focuses on a black-tailed godwit (Limosa limosa) population, consisting of 35-40 pairs, that breeds on a grazed shore meadow on SE Gotland, Sweden. The small size of the population makes it more prone to extinction due to chance events, than a larger population. The godwits showed microhabitat preferences when choosing nest sites. Godwit nests had higher vegetation over the nest cup, lower surrounding (1-3 m) vegetation and different plant species composition, as compared to random sites. Breeding near conspecifics or other wader species, especially lapwings (Vanellus vanellus) and further away from potential predator perches were the most important factors in decreasing nest predation. A comparison between different shore meadows along the east coast of the island revealed that large, open areas suffered less from nest predation. Thus, shore meadows suitable for breeding godwits should be large and without trees or other predator perches and have a grazing regime that favours variation in vegetation height. Over 80% of previously ringed adults returned each year, but very few birds ringed as chicks were recovered. Hatching success was 55-60% for all observed nests. To predict the future of the current population, demographic data were used in an ecological risk analysis. The simulations showed that the Gotlandic population will not survive the coming 40 years without immigration. Black-tailed godwits are divided into three subspecies. Genetic analyses (mtDNA) revealed that all subspecies had unique haplotypes and there was a clear geographic structure among subspecies. Within the limosa subspecies, godwits on Gotland and Öland showed a high proportion of rare haplotypes, but no genetic variation was found in Dutch birds. These results imply that black-tailed godwits on Gotland and Öland have high conservation value.

Drinking water is produced from raw water and is either from groundwater or surface water. This thesis aims to find out if the cleaning process of raw water is sufficiently effective. This is important because consumers are otherwise at risk of waterborne infection caused by pathogens. There are three groups of pathogens; bacteria, virus and parasite. These have different characteristics which mean that they require different water treatment to be separated. In addition to normal operation, a number of scenarios were examined. This is to investigate how water treatment would do if they became a reality. The thesis has examined Borg´s waterworks operated by Norrköping Vatten AB. It was defined to cover the distance from water source to the consumer. In the work, the model Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment (QMRA) was used to perform risk analysis by simulating the normal operation and different scenarios of the water purification process. Thus, knowledge can be obtained about the effectiveness of separation by bacteria, viruses and parasites. However, the QMRA-model is considered to contain some flaws and for that reason the Norwegian model called Good Disinfection Practice (GDP) was also used. GDP is a theoretical model which is based on formulas and tables. The model takes into account the raw water quality and also provides deductions for various measures that the water plant possesses to ensure a good supply of water. The results obtained with both models were similar and showed that the water treatment is sufficient for the bacteria, but not viruses and parasites. Both models were considered to be reliable but viruses and parasites are very difficult to analyze, which has resulted in uncertain literature values and hence in the results. The result also showed that neither viruses nor parasites exceeded the limit by so much that more hygienic barriers to the reduction of them are necessary. The conclusion which may be drawn from the fact that no parasites have been detected in the raw water is that the water treatment still might be sufficient. To determine the effects that an exclusion of various barriers may give, the normal operation was simulated and a purification step at a time was excluded. The result showed that the purification steps which are most important to maintain the treatment process are chemical precipitation followed by rapid filtration, slow filtration and disinfection with chlorine. If any of these cleaning steps were to fail, this introduces a large increase in the risk of waterborne disease. The results showed that the chemical precipitation step gave the greatest separation effect on the virus but also on the parasites. However, the slow filtration gave the largest separation of the parasites. Free chlorine had the greatest effect on bacteria. The investigated scenarios were assumed to be wastewater discharges, sewage discharges in relation to flood the nearby pastures, and sewage overflows due to heavy rainfall. The results of the simulated scenarios were the same when it was only bacteria that in all cases produced a result within the limits of the daily infection probability. Both viruses and parasites exceeded both values. However, there were few studies on these and thus literature values needed to be implemented in the QMRA-model. Hence, the uncertainty of the results was great. The QMRA-model also contained deficiencies in the simulation of the discharge of effluents, where the amount of virus was about 1000-10000 times too much. If this problem as well as more specific data for the investigated area, and more Swedish studies were available, a more credible simulation of the scenarios could be implemented.

Huruvida män och kvinnors attityd skiljer sig åt när det kommer till risk är ett ämne som det bedrivits mycket forskning kring. Dock var det först med de indivuella premiepen-sionsvalen som det för första gången kunde undersökas från ett rättvisande urval, eftersom hela befolkningen valde och gjorde så under samma period samt med samma bakgrunds information. Med implementeringen av detta nya system kom alltså en möjlighet för varje individ att själv påverka sin pension genom de indivudella valen. Informationen som varje individ erhöll innan valen innehöll risken associerad med varje fond samt fondens ursprung, dessa två variabler testas i uppsatsens empiriska analys. Följaktligen är syftet med denna uppsats att undersöka ifall kvinnor är mindre riskbenägna än män med premiepensionsvalen som analys. Resultaten visar att det inte finns några statistiska bevis som indikerar att kvinnor är mindre riskbenägna än män när det kommer till pensionsplaceringsbeslut. Dock har fondens ursprung en större inverkan på kvinnor än den har på män. Eftersom kvinnor visar en tendens att vara mer benägna att investera i Svenska fonder. Detta kan dock påverkas av faktorer som t.ex. vilken sektor man är anställd i. De erhållna resultaten gör att jag kan instämma med tidigare forskning som hävdar att det inte finns bevis som indikerar att kvinnor är mindre riskbe-nägna än män. / The subject of men and womens attitude difference towards risk has been thoroughly dis-cussed in previous research. However, with the individual allocation choices came an op-portunity to study this subject and to draw conclusions from a fair and representative sample for the first time. The reason is that the entire population choose and did so at ap-proximately the same time, and were given access to the same information prior to choos-ing. With this new system came therefore the opportunity for each individual to invest a portion of their pension. The information, distributed to each individual prior to choosing, contained the risk index and also the origin of the fund and these variables are tested in the empirical analysis in the thesis. Hence, the purpose of this thesis is to investigate whether women are more risk averse than men, using the individual allocation choice as analysis. The results indicated no difference between men and women indicating that there is no statistical evidence that women are more risk averse than men when it comes to individual financial decisions. However the origin of the fund has a larger impact on women in the sense that they have a tendency to be more home biased than men. However, the home biasedness seems to be a variable highly affected by e.g. place of employment. With the obtained result I can concur with previous researches that claim that women are not more risk averse than men.

A variety of radiation sources exist at the Department of Radiology and the Department of Nuclear Medicine at Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge. Radiation sources can also be found in areas outside of these departments due to the wide use of mobile xray machines and fluoroscopic c-arm equipment and also due to the movement of patients that have received diagnostic or therapeutic doses of radionuclides. In a proposal for a new legislation from the Swedish Radiation Protection Authority (SSI), which was later issued as legislation SSI FS 2005:6, the effective doses of the general public from a practice using ionising radiation need to be kept below stated limit of 0.1 mSv/year. This project was performed to verify the dose limit for individuals of the general public in the above mentioned practices. Long-term measurements with TL-dosimeters were utilised to carry out the environmental monitoring of the areas throughout the Departments of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine. To assess the contribution of ionising radiation from rooms housing mobile fluoroscopic c-arm equipment to surrounding areas, a tissue equivalent phantom of size (30×30×20 cm3) was employed to simulate a patient and the scattered radiation was monitored by using area monitors, such as portable proportional counters. The annual effective doses were calculated in terms of personal dose equivalent as well as ambient dose equivalent monitored using TL-dosimeters and area monitors, respectively. The stated limit of 0.1 mSv/year to the general public was verified by risk analysis. An attempt to create a method for determining the amount of radiation shielding in terms of lead equivalence in walls, doors, protective glasses of manoeuvre rooms and cupboards of diagnostic x-ray labs was also performed using a radiation point source of 99mTc and a NaI scintillation detector. Depending on the accuracy in the measurements the amount of lead deviated slightly from the expected 2 mm value based on the former legislation SSI FS 1991:1.

The thesis aims at analyzing the concepts of risk and safety as well as the class of concepts to which they belong, thick concepts, focusing in particular on the normative aspects involved. Essay I analyzes thick concepts, i.e. concepts such as cruelty and kindness that seem to combine descriptive and evaluative features. The traditional account, in which thick concepts are analyzed as the conjunction of a factual description and an evaluation, is criticized. Instead, it is argued that the descriptive and evaluative aspects must be understood as a whole. Furthermore, it is argued that the two main worries evoked against non-naturalism – that non-naturalism cannot account for disagreement and that it is not genuinely explanatory – can be met. Essay II investigates the utilization of the Kripke/Putnam causal theory of reference in relation to the Open Question Argument. It is argued that the Open Question Argument suitably interpreted provides prima facie evidence against the claim that moral kinds are natural kinds, and that the causal theory, as interpreted by leading naturalist defenders, actually underscores this conclusion. Essay III utilizes the interpretation of the Open Question Argument argued for in the previous essay in order to argue against naturalistic reduction of risk, i.e. reduction of risk into natural concepts such as probability and harm. Three different normative aspects of risk and safety are put forward – epistemic uncertainty, distributive normativity and border normativity – and it is argued that these normative aspects cannot be reduced to a natural measure. Essay IV provides a conceptual analysis of safety in the context of societal decision-making, and argues for a notion that explicitly includes epistemic uncertainty, the degree to which we are uncertain of our knowledge of the situation at hand. Some formal versions of a comparative safety concept are also proposed. Essay V puts forward a normative critique against a common argument, viz. the claim that the public should follow the experts’ advice in recommending an activity whenever the experts have the best knowledge of the risk involved. The importance of safety in risk acceptance together with considerations from epistemic uncertainty makes the claim incorrect even after including plausible limitations to exclude ‘external’ considerations. Furthermore, it is shown that the scope of the objection covers risk assessment as well as risk management. Essay VI provides a systematized account of safety engineering practices that clarifies their relation to the goal of safety engineering, namely to increase safety. A list of 24 principles referred to in the literature of safety engineering is provided, divided into four major categories. It is argued that important aspects of these methods can be better understood with the help of the distinction between risk and uncertainty, in addition to the common distinction between risk and probability. / QC 20100803

Nuclear-based hydrogen generation is a promising way to supply hydrogen for this large market in the future. This thesis focuses on one of the most promising methods, a thermochemical Cu-Cl cycle, which is currently under development by UOIT, Atomic Energy of Canada Limited (AECL) and the Argonne National Laboratory (ANL). The safety issues of the Cu-Cl cycle are addressed in this thesis. An investigation of major accident scenarios shows that potential tragedies can be avoided with effective risk analysis and safety management programs. As a powerful and systematic tool, fault tree analysis (FTA) is adapted to the particular needs of the Cu-Cl system. This thesis develops a new method that combines FTA with a reliability analysis tool, multi-state system (MSS), to improve the accuracy of FTA and also improve system reliability. / UOIT

<p>Air pollution and a general concern for lack of physical activity in North America have motivated governments to encourage non-motorized modes of transportation. A key infrastructure component for these forms of transportation is sidewalks. The City of Saskatoon has identified the need to formalize sidewalk management policies to demonstrate diligence for community protection regarding sidewalk safety. Prioritization of sidewalk maintenance and rehabilitation actions must be objective and minimize risk to the community. Most research on prioritization of pedestrian facilities involved new construction projects. This research proposes a decision model that prioritizes a given list of existing unsafe sidewalk locations needing maintenance or rehabilitation using a direct measure of pedestrian safety, namely, quality-adjusted life years lost per year. </p><p>A decision model was developed for prioritizing a given list of unsafe sidewalk locations, aiding maintenance and rehabilitation decisions by providing the associated risk to pedestrian safety. The model used data mostly from high quality sources that had already been collected and validated. Probabilities and estimations were used to produce value-added decision policy.</p> <p>The decision analysis framework applied probability and multi-attribute utility theories. This study differed from other research due to the inclusion of age and gender groups. Total average daily population of the city was estimated. This population was distributed to sidewalk locations using probabilities for trip purposes and a locations ability to attract people relative to the city total. Then trip injury events were predicted. Age and gender distribution and trip injury type estimations were used to determine the impact of those injuries on quality of life.</p><p>There exist much observable high quality data that can be used as indicators of unknown or unobserved events. A decision policy was developed that prioritizes unsafe sidewalk locations based on the direct safety impact on pedestrians. Results showed that quality-adjusted life years lost per year sufficiently prioritized a given list of unsafe sidewalk locations. It was demonstrated that the use of conditional probabilities (n=594) allowed for the ability to abstract data representing a different source population to another. Average daily population confined and distributed within the city boundary minimized problems of accuracy. Gender-age distribution was important for differentiating the risk at unsafe sidewalk locations. Concepts from this research provide for possible extension to the development of sidewalk service levels and sidewalk priority maps and for risk assessment of other public services.</p>