<p dir="ltr">Corn, a vital cereal grain extensively used in various industries, exhibits viscoelastic properties when subjected to compressive forces. The effect of moisture content on the mechanical behavior of corn is crucial for understanding its storage, processing, and transportation requirements. Understanding the mechanical properties of bulk corn is crucial for ensuring a smooth flow of grains from the bin, thereby helping to prevent confined space-related accidents such as grain bin entrapment and engulfment, which can occur when workers enter the bin to facilitate grain flow. The objective of this study is to investigate the stress and strain relaxation of different bulk corn kernels qualities. In the first study various qualities of bulk corn, including clean corn, corn with impurities, and moldy corn samples were compressed at 42, 77, 106, and 130 N force levels. The compressive behavior of samples was measured at 13.22, 16.16, 18.93, and 21.70% wet basis moisture contents. The samples were compressed at a strain rate of 1.25mm/min, and the strain was kept constant for 200 s to determine the stress relaxation properties. For moldy corn, the energy absorbed increased with force resulting in clump formation irrespective of the force level. In the clean corn, the energy absorbed increased with moisture content, and formation of clumps was observed at 21.70% moisture content. Solidity decreased with moisture content, resulting in high cohesion at moisture contents 18.93% and 21.70% for clean corn. In corn with impurities, even though the energy absorbed increased with moisture content, no clump formation was observed. This study provides insights into the mechanical behavior of bulk corn under compression, such as solidity and compressive strength. An increase in the compressive strength or a decrease in the solidity of stored shelled corn in a grain bin increases compaction, cohesion, and the formation of clumps, and thereby affects the flow of grains during discharge from the bin. The study also highlights potential risks in grain bins when the kernels are moldy and stored at high moisture content.</p><p dir="ltr">The second study investigates the creep behavior of bulk corn kernels and its relationship with moisture content. Clean corn reconditioned to 16.23%, 19.02%, and 21.63% from the initial moisture content of 10.81% were compressed at 42, 77, 106, and 130 N. The viscoelastic behavior of the sample was measured by fitting the experimental data to a four-element Burgers model to obtain the model parameters E₀, E₁, η₀, and η₁. The results showed that the ranges of the elastic modulus (E₀) increase with an increase in moisture content, indicating an increase in compaction and elastic deformation of the sample. Retarded elastic modulus (E₁) values were also high at high moisture content, implying a high absorption of energy. The viscous component shows a dominance of the elastic component due to the low value of η₁ at high moisture content. The findings highlight the importance of considering moisture content in optimizing the handling of corn to enhance safety and efficiency in agricultural operations. Increase in the elastic modulus, retarded elastic modulus, and decrease in the viscous component leads to poor discharge of grains from the bin due to grain bridging or crust, or formation of clump due to out-of-conditioned grain, leading to a potential risk of grain entrapment and engulfment when the grain bin workers get inside the bin. This research contributes to the ongoing efforts to improve grain storage conditions.</p>

Chiefs in Malawi have traditionally been part of the government machinery since colonial days and continue to play a crucial role in development administration even more so in decentralized structures. They are able upon to mobilize communities in rural areas to initiate and implement community development projects with minimal supervision. Malawi Social Action Fund 1 (MASAF 1) project management approach, which centered on community ownership of projects and registered enormous successes, is a case in proof of this. However, distribution of power and roles between chiefs and local government authorities in view of decentralization demand more research and policy debate if chiefs are to be effectively utilized and for the decentralization process to work effectively. Whilst the local authorities derive their power from the control of 5% of revenue collected in the districts, which they are allocated, chiefs derive theirs from the legitimacy they have over their subjects for being in constant touch with the community. / Development Studies / M.A. Social Science (Development Studies)

Heat stress (HS) induced changes in energy metabolism, proteolysis, lipogenesis, and oxidative balance have meat quality ramifications for livestock. However, several knowledge gaps exist in understanding heat stressed finishing pig physiology and pork quality characteristics and how dietary zinc may ameliorate undesirable outcomes. Research was completed to determine zinc supplementation effects on carcass composition, meat quality, and oxidative stability of fresh and processed pork from pigs subjected to a chronic, cyclic heat stress using a 2×2×2 factorial arrangement of treatments with main effects of environment (HS vs. thermoneutral; TN), added zinc level (50 vs. 130 mg kg^-1 available zinc), and zinc source (inorganic vs. organic). Commercial crossbred mixed-sex pigs (initially 72.0 kg) were group-housed under either TN (18.9-16.7°C) or cycling HS conditions with chronic diurnal heat (30-29°C/26-27°C for 12h:12h) on days 24-71 with acute heat waves (32-33°C/29-30°C for 12h:12h) on days 21-24, 42-45, and 63-65. One representative pig (<i>n</i>=80) per pen was slaughtered on day 64. The HS pigs were lighter bodyweight (<i>P</i>=0.039), yielded lighter carcasses (<i>P</i>=0.011), less last rib backfat (<i>P</i>=0.032), tended to have smaller loin eye area (<i>P</i>=0.062) but similar percent lean in belly center slices (<i>P</i>>0.10). Compared to TN, HS carcasses had higher 24-h pH (<i>P</i>=0.001) and decreased drip loss (<i>P</i>=0.034). Shifts in individual fatty acid profile of sausage product derived from HS carcasses were observed but were of insufficient magnitude to affect iodine value. Initially, sausage from HS carcasses tended (day 0, <i>P</i>=0.071) to have less thiobarbituric acid reactive substances than TN but over a 10-day simulated retail display, no treatment induced lipid oxidation differences (<i>P</i>>0.05) were observed in either sausage or displayed loin chops. Consistent treatment differences in CIE L*a*b* of products throughout the 10-day display were not observed. The relationships between physiological changes in pigs receiving supplemental zinc and their body and ambient temperatures were also investigated. A representative gilt (<i>n</i>=96) was selected for thermal monitoring from each pen of the 2×2×2 treatments plus 4 additional treatments representing 2 intermediate levels of Zn in both environments. Core body temperatures (T_core) during the day 42-45 acute heat wave were continuously recorded via indwelling vaginal thermometers and infrared thermal imaging was used to measure skin temperatures at 12-hour intervals. From a 64-gilt subset of the 2×2×2 treatments, jejunum and ileum samples were collected on day 64 for analysis of villus height, crypt depth, and jejunal gene expression of heat shock proteins (27, 70, 90), occludin, and mucin (MUC2). The HS model induced thermoregulatory changes and increases in T_core (<i>P</i><0.05). Day 42-45 ambient temperature was negatively correlated with expression of HSP-27 (r=-0.42, <i>P</i>=0.047), HSP-90 (r=-0.49, <i>P</i>=0.014), and occludin (r=-0.69, <i>P</i><0.001) in HS pigs. For the organic Zn supplemented pigs, ambient temperature was positively correlated with expression of HSP-27 (r=0.42, <i>P</i>=0.034) and MUC2 (r=0.45, <i>P</i>=0.017) and negatively correlated with villus height in jejunum (r=-0.42, <i>P</i>=0.027) and ileum (r=-0.38, <i>P</i>=0.048). Thermal Circulation Index (measure of heat dissipation) of HS pigs was negatively correlated with their ileum villus height (r=-0.51, <i>P</i>=0.015) and positively correlated with HSP-70 expression (r=0.46, <i>P</i>=0.041). The T_core lacked correlation with most variables. This research demonstrates cyclic HS affects carcass composition and quality but does not appear to reduce display shelf-life of pork as indicated by lack of differences in lipid oxidation and color stability. In this HS model, zinc level or source imparted negligible benefits and thermal correlations with gut integrity characteristics existed for organic zinc supplemented and HS pigs. The degree of heat dissipation by heat stressed pigs appeared to be associated with classic HS damage and intestinal responses which may be useful indicators of HS in the grow-finish pig. Another agricultural challenge is maintaining higher education programming which establishes a successful career trajectory for agricultural students amid generational shifts in attitudes and background experiences. Undergraduates studying Animal Science and/or Agricultural Economics were surveyed to understand their perception of how collegiate curricular, co-curricular, and extracurricular experiences (coursework, club participation, relevant work experience, international experience, advising/mentoring, college life, and professional networking) contribute to their anticipated career success. A best-worst scaling experiment was used to force respondents (<i>n</i>=487) to make unbiased tradeoffs between the collegiate experience attributes. Responses were then related back to additional demographical and experience/perception characteristics of respondents. Students indicated relevant work experience was overwhelmingly the most critical of the 7 factors (57% preference share), followed by professional networking (19%), and coursework (14%). Students solely in a pre-veterinary Animal Science curriculum represented a distinct category of students regarding their beliefs and experiences. Further research is needed to investigate possible disconnects between student perceptions and reality in higher education and agricultural careers.

The purpose of the study was to investigate how farmers in Quang Bing Province, Vietnam have been making the transition from subsistence farming to commercial agriculture. This process began in 1986 when the Vietnam economy changed from central planning to a market orientation. The research strategy was based on case study analysis of two communes in each of three agro-ecological zones, defined as coastal, plains and mountains. Within each commune there were six embedded household case studies, i.e 36 in total. Case studies were selected purposively to capture diversity of agro-ecological zones, market access and communications, wealth and income status, and ethnic communities. Households were interviewed twice; first in either late 2006 or early 2007, and again in late 2008. The study was approached using a constructivist paradigm and a lens of livelihood analysis, focusing on resources, institutions, interventions and the dynamics of change. Particular attention was given to the development of markets (inputs, outputs, land, labour and credit) and supply chain factors. Separate measures of commercialisation were constructed based on outputs and inputs, and at the level of both individual activities and the overall household. Investigations were informed by existing theory, but no hypotheses were tested. Instead, the research focused on emergent patterns and insights, and the enrichment and modification of existing theory. A review of literature indicated that the transition from subsistence farming to commercial agriculture in Vietnam was different from other countries on account of the specific combination of low technology agriculture, typical of much of developing Asia, combined with the transformation from a centrally planned economy to a market orientation as occurred in Central and Eastern European countries. At commune level, the key determinants of commercialisation were strong physical connections to markets, with good road access being paramount. Once all weather road access for motorised vehicles was available, then rapid commercialisation occurred. Supply chains typically developed faster for outputs than inputs. New technologies that increased the yield of basic food crops, and facilitated by Government and NGO programs, led to the release of land resources no longer required for meeting food security needs. Households retained their production of food crops that provided food security, and added additional cash earning activities. At the level of individual households, the commercialisation process was led by entrepreneurial families who perceived opportunities relating to profitable activities, and combined this with hard work. Often these opportunities were linked to what they had observed or learnt elsewhere. Once first movers took up a new technology, others observed and followed. There were many enabling factors, such as access to land, access to capital, and access to credit. However, none of these could be considered a determinant, in that the absence of any one factor did not by itself preclude successful commercialisation. Absence of an active male worker was a major constraint to commercialisation, as was lack of necessary crop and livestock skills. There was evidence that income disparities were increasing between the wealthy and the poor. Output commerciality across all households averaged 88 % in 2008 and was higher for wealthy households (95 %) than poor households (83 %). All households still produced their own food crops, but these crops had low market values and hence had a low impact on the output commerciality index. Output commerciality measured in percentage terms obscured that wealthy families had net incomes almost 13 times greater than poor households. A major theoretical insight was that key commercialisation factors are multiple and context dependent. Accordingly, there is a need in any investigation for a holistic approach, based on a livelihood framework that incorporates the complexities associated with the development of markets, as well as giving consideration to the range of interventions and institutional policies that impact on livelihood development.

This study was undertaken to research the principles and practices behind increased pasture productivity on Longslip Station, Omarama. A range of landscape - soil - climate - plant systems were identified, then analysed and the legume responses measured. By isolating cause and effect and appreciating the driving variables of each system, lessons learnt could be reliably and objectively transferred to the rest of the farm. Extrapolation to the balance of the property (15,150 ha) permitted immediate large-scale development and engendered confidence to lending institutions, Lands Department, catchment authorities and ourselves. Soil (land) cannot be well managed and conserved unless it is mapped reliably and its characteristics measured and interpreted by skilled observers (Cutler, 1977). Soil resource surveys, and their interpretation, are an essential ingredient of rational resource evaluation and planning. This thesis is a figurative and comparative survey and study of the soil catenary bodies, resident vegetation, legume establishment and pasture production characteristics of a 400 hectare catchment, in relation to, and as influenced by soil landscape unit, slope component, altitude, aspect and time. The inherent diversity in landform, soil properties and vegetation communities in a single catchment in the high country has not previously been fully studied or appreciated. This has lead to blanket recommendations for fertilizer, seed and management regimes both within and between properties and even regions. This study reports on the diversity of, yet predictable change in soil properties with slope position (upper, middle and lower) aspect and altitude in terms of both soil physical properties e.g. soil depth and water holding capacity and soil chemical properties such as pH, BS%, %P, %S, %N and %C. The composition of the resident vegetation and its differential response to oversowing and topdressing and subsequent change through time is reported and discussed. Finally an epilogue gives an insight into the problems and frustrations of farming practices in the high country from a motivation and personal perspective and political point of view that it is essential to come to terms with.

This research focussed on Fair Trade (FT) coffee supply chains in Papua New Guinea. Three research questions were asked. First, do small holders in the FT chains receive higher returns than the smallholders in the conventional chains? Secondly, if smallholders in the FT coffee chains receive higher returns from their coffee than the smallholders in the conventional chains, what are the sources of these higher returns? Finally, if smallholders in the FT chains don't receive higher returns than in the conventional chains, what are the constraints to smallholders receiving higher returns from the FT coffee chains than the conventional chains? A conceptual framework for agribusiness supply chain was developed that was used to guide the field work. A comparative case study methodology was selcted as an appropriate method for eliciting the required information. Four case study chains were selected. A paired FT and conventional coffee chains from Okapa and another paired FT and conventional chains from Kainantu districts, Eastern Highlands Province were selected for the study. The research found that smallholders in the FT chains and vonventional chains receive very similar prices for their coffee (parchment price equivalent). Hence, there was no evidence that smallholders in the FT chains received higher prices or returns from their coffee production than smallholders in conventional chains. This study also found that there was no evidence of FLO certification improving returns to smallholders in the FT chains over those returns received in the conventional chains, but the community that the FT smallholder producers come from did benefit. The sources of these community benefits lies in the shorter FT chains and the distributions of the margin that would have been otherwise made by processors to producers, exporters and the community. In addition, this study found that constraints associated with value creation are similar in all the four chains studies. However, there are some added hurdles for the FT chains in adhering to FT and organic coffee standards. Moreover, FT co-oeratives lacked capacity to trade and their only functions were to help with FLO certification and distribute the FT premium to the community. The findings of this research support some aspects of the literature, but not others. The research contribution is the finding that in this period of high conventional coffee prices, returns to smallholders from FT chains were no bettter than the returns gained in conventional chains, which leads to oppotunism and lack of loyalty by smallholders in the FT chains. The other contribution of this research is in identifying a particular type of free rider who is not a member of the FT co-operative but has right to the community benefits generated by the FT chain.

Past development efforts in the Kingdom of Tonga are reviewed in relation to the goals of reducing poverty, unemployment and inequality. It is shown that progress has been strictly limited and evidence is provided to support the view that inadequate attention has been paid to agricultural improvement and rural development. The components, practices and institutional framework of the Tongan agricultural system are reviewed and possible future avenues of agricultural development are examined. Attention is drawn to those aspects where improvements are needed if agricultural development is to be promoted. These include an expanded programme of research, an upgrading of the agricultura1 extension effort, an overhaul of the 1and tenure system and a substantial improvement in agricultural product marketing; or, in short, an integrated programme of agricultural improvement and rural development. From a planning viewpoint, there is evidence of inadequate elaboration of development objectives, superficial identification of resources and insufficient knowledge concerning resource interactions, all of which have created confusion and uncertainty, particularly as regards the role of agriculture in the Kingdom's development. As a result, there is a lack of commitment to development efforts generally, and a tendency for activities on the fringes to be pursued at the expense of more fundamental issues. It is concluded that this situation results largely from the lack of an adequate information base, and that before an integrated plan for agricultural improvement can be developed, the network of interrelationships operating within the agricultural system needs to be understood. An information system is developed with the basic aim of providing information which will facilitate an understanding of how the agricultural system is integrated into the everyday lives of the people of Tonga. The concept adopted recognises the reciprocal relationships involved between agriculture and the rest of the economy. Using a systems research framework, the Tongan household agricultural system is defined in terms of its component parts, their interactive behaviour and their interrelationships. The key variables required for analysis are isolated and the production relationships in which rural households participate are specified. The information system provides for the observation of household decision making with particular reference to the allocation of labour, land use and the disposal of farm produce, and the disposition of cash earnings. The information framework is based on the premise that land is the most critical resource in Tongan agriculture. Information requirements are specified which will enable an assessment to be made of the effect of a number of factors on 1and productivity. The data collected will also enable valuable insights to be gained into issues such as land utilisation and methods of production; composition and disposition of agricultural output; household food consumption; marketing of agricultural produce; land tenure; sources of household income; net incomes from agriculture; participation in aid projects; and utilisation of loan finance.

Chiefs in Malawi have traditionally been part of the government machinery since colonial days and continue to play a crucial role in development administration even more so in decentralized structures. They are able upon to mobilize communities in rural areas to initiate and implement community development projects with minimal supervision. Malawi Social Action Fund 1 (MASAF 1) project management approach, which centered on community ownership of projects and registered enormous successes, is a case in proof of this. However, distribution of power and roles between chiefs and local government authorities in view of decentralization demand more research and policy debate if chiefs are to be effectively utilized and for the decentralization process to work effectively. Whilst the local authorities derive their power from the control of 5% of revenue collected in the districts, which they are allocated, chiefs derive theirs from the legitimacy they have over their subjects for being in constant touch with the community. / Development Studies / M.A. Social Science (Development Studies)

<p dir="ltr">Agricultural biosecurity is a global concern, with implications for food security, public health, and economic and ecological stability. Through education and technology, threats can be predicted and better managed. Existing educational materials and spatial analysis predominantly cater to larger facilities, leaving smaller producers at a disadvantage as they often lack financial means to implement prevention strategies and have less resources at their disposal. In this dissertation, two novel uses of education and technology within agricultural biosecurity were researched: educational curricula for young and beginning farmers and the potential impact of geospatial information systems (GIS) tools in understanding the spread of avian influenza viruses (AIV). I extend my deepest gratitude to Dr. Shawn Ehlers, Clinical Assistant Professor, for his unwavering guidance and mentorship throughout my dissertation work. Special appreciation goes to my committee members, Dr. Pamela Aaltonen, Dr. William Field, and Dr. Roger Tormoehlen, for their valuable insights and constructive feedback. Collaborative efforts with Melissa Rudolph and the support from ABE GSA and QGSA greatly enriched my research experience. Heartfelt thanks to my family, including Glen Jr. Morris, Melodie Morris, Moranda Morris, Marissa and Ian Pringle, and my partner Adam Dachowicz, as well as Adam’s family Steven, Lori, Alyssa, and Holly, for their constant support. I acknowledge the contributions of Gearing Up for Safety, IN-PREPared, Indiana Board of Animal Health (BOAH), Indiana Department of Natural Resources (DNR), and United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) for their help in my research investigations and express my appreciation to Purdue libraries and ABE faculty and staff for constant support with crucial resources and facilities.</p><p><br></p>

The purpose of this dissertation was to identify factors that contribute to the sustainability of rural water supply facilities (WSFs). Twenty-four interviews were conducted: 16 from rural communities and 8 from water supply agencies. Key findings are that in order to achieve sustainability of WSFs, there is need to ensure that (1) there is an effective community organisation; (2) communities have the ability to operate and maintain WSFs; (3) communities are able to raise adequate user fees for purchasing spare parts; and (4) that there is a strong backup support at the district level to carry out major repairs. Major threats to the sustainability of WSFs include high poverty levels in communities, weak institutional framework and inability of communities to handle major breakdowns. / Social Work / M.A. (Social Work)