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Un des principaux challenges dans le contexte du développement des matériaux biocomposites est de remplacer les matières plastiques à base de pétrole par des matériaux biosourcés. En raison de leurs origines naturelles, d'une résistance relativement élevée et de leur capacité à former des produits transparents, les nanofibres de cellulose possèdent un grand potentiel d'applications dans les matériaux composites. Dans ce travail des résultats ont été apportés premièrement sur l'optimisation des procédés de productions de nanofibres de cellulose par des traitements biochimiques et mécaniques, deuxièmement sur leurs propriétés rhéologiques et structurelles en milieu aqueux et troisièmement sur la production de composites à matrice de latex. Les questions de dispersions homogènes de nanofibres de cellulose dans la matrice et des interactions entre ces composants à des fins de renforcement des bio-composites ont été étudiés en détails. / One of the main challenges in the context of biocomposites development is to replace petroleum-based materials with bio-based. Because of their natural origin, relatively high strength and the ability to form transparent products, cellulose nanofibers have a large potential for application in the composite materials. This work was focused primarily on the optimization of cellulose nanofiber production methods using biochemical and mechanical treatments, secondly on their rheological and structural properties in an aqueous medium and thirdly on the production of latex-based composites. The questions of homogeneous dispersion of cellulose nanofibers in the matrix and the interactions between these components for the purpose of matrix reinforcement are particularly addressed.

Les génomes eucaryotes sont très complexes et peuvent être très grands. Par exemple, le génome humain contient environ de 20 000 à 25 000 gènes codant pour des protéines. L'expression de ces gènes doit être strictement régulée à de nombreux niveaux (tels que l'organisation de la chromatine, la transcription des gènes, le traitement et l'exportation de l'ARN messager ainsi que la traduction) pour le bon fonctionnement de la machinerie cellulaire. De nombreuses protéines et complexes protéiques sont impliqués dans ces processus essentiels de régulation, tels que les remodeleurs de la chromatine, les activateurs, co-activateurs et répresseurs de la transcription et particulièrement la machinerie générale de transcription. Chez les eucaryotes, la transcription de gènes codant pour des protéines est appelée transcription génique de classe II, elle est catalysée par l'ARN polymérase II (Pol II). La transcription des gènes par la polymérase II nécessite l'interaction coopérative de plusieurs protéines et complexes protéiques afin de faciliter l'assemblage d'un complexe de pré-initiation (PIC) au promoteur de base. Le complexe de pré-initiation comprend l'ARN polymérase II et les facteurs de transcription généraux (GTFs) - TFIIA, TFIIB, TFIID, TFIIE, TFIIF et TFIIH ainsi que le complexe de Médiateur et une grande variété de co-activateurs transcriptionnels.Une étape fondamentale dans l'assemblage d'un complexe de pré-initiation est la reconnaissance du promoteur de base par le facteur de transcription général TFIID. TFIID est un complexe multi protéique d'environ 1,6 MDa. Chez l'homme, il comprend une vingtaine de sous-unités constituées de 14 protéines différentes - la protéine de liaison à la boite tata (TBP) et ses facteurs associés (TAFs 1 à 13). Une série d'études sur la TFIID humaine et ses sous-ensembles ont été réalisés depuis sa découverte il y a plus de 20 ans, cherchant à comprendre la structure et le mécanisme de ces facteurs de transcription général essentiel, cependant l'architecture de TFIID, ses activités, ses fonctions, ses rouages et ses mécanismes d'assemblage cellulaire reste largement incompris à ce jour.Cette thèse décrit les études biochimiques que nous avons effectuées sur trois sous-ensembles distincts de TFIID humain. Nous avons utilisé un certain nombre de techniques de biologie structurale : la cristallographie, la spectroscopie à résonance magnétique nucléaire (RMN) et la diffusion des rayons X aux petits angles (SAXs), pour étudier le complexe formé par les facteurs humains, associés à la protéine de liaison à la boite tata, TAF1 et TAF7. Ces études structurelles fournissent un aperçu détaillé sur l'interface d'interaction complexe de TAF1/TAF7, misent de concert avec des données disponibles dans la littérature, elles mettent en évidence la nature dynamique de l'interaction TAF1/TAF7 dans le complexe de TFIID humain.Dans une deuxième étude, nous avons analysé un complexe formé par TAF11, TAF13 et TBP en utilisant un panel de méthodes biophysiques et biochimiques : l'analyse électrophorétique de retard sur gel (EMSA), l'ultracentrifugation analytique (AUC), la chromatographie d'exclusion stérique (SEC) analyse, le pull-down, la spectrométrie de masse native et la spectrométrie de masse chimique à réticulation (CLMS). Ce complexe fait penser au complexe TAF1/TBP qui imite la boite tata.De plus, dans le cadre des efforts en cours au sein du laboratoire du Pr Imre Berger afin de déterminer la structure de l'holo-TFIID humaine, nous avons reconstitué un grand sous-ensemble de TFIID (900 KDa) appelé 9TAF, qui est composé de neuf différents facteurs associés de TBP. Nous avons effectué des études d'électro-microscopie par coloration négative sur le complexe 9TAF qui nous ont fourni des informations à faible résolution. Ces études ouvrent la voie à de futures études de cryo-EM sur le complexe 9TAF pour obtenir un modèle de plus haute resolution. / Eukaryotic genomes are highly complex and can be very large. For example, the human genome contains approximately 20,000-25,000 protein coding genes. Expression of these genes needs to be tightly regulated at many levels, including chromatin organization, gene transcription, mRNA processing and export and translation, for proper functioning of cellular machinery. Many proteins and protein complexes are involved in these essential regulatory processes, examples include chromatin remodelers, transcriptional activators and coactivators, transcriptional repressors and notably the general transcription machinery. Transcription of protein coding genes in eukaryotes is called Class II gene transcription, and is catalyzed by RNA polymerase II (Pol II). Gene transcription by Pol II requires the cooperative interaction of multiple proteins and protein complexes to facilitate the assembly of a preinitiation complex (PIC) at the core promoter. The PIC comprises Pol II and the General Transcription Factors (GTFs)- TFIIA, TFIIB, TFIID, TFIIE, TFIIF, and TFIIH, together with the Mediator complex and a large variety of transcriptional coactivators.A fundamental step in PIC assembly is recognition of the core promoter by GTF TFIID, a magdalton sized multiprotein complex. In humans, TFIID comprises about twenty subunits made up of 14 different proteins – the TATA box binding protein (TBP) and its associated factors (TAFs, numbered 1 to 13). A range of studies on human TFIID and its subassemblies have been carried out since its discovery more than two decades ago, to understand the structure and mechanism of this essential GTF, but the architecture of TFIID, its activities, its functions, its inner workings and the mechanisms of its cellular assembly have eluded detailed understanding to date.This thesis describes biochemical, biophysical, structural and functional studies carried out on three distinct human TFIID subassemblies. We used a number of structural biology techniques, including crystallization, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) to analyse a complex formed by the human TBP associated factors TAF1 and TAF7. These structural studies provide detailed insights into the intricate interaction interface formed by TAF1 and TAF7, and, together with other data available from the literature, highlight the dynamic nature of the TAF1/TAF7 interaction in the human TFIID complex.In a second study, we analyzed a novel complex formed by TAF11, TAF13 and TBP using a range of biophysical and biochemical methods including electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA), analytical ultracentrifugation (AUC), size exclusion chromatography (SEC) analysis, pull-down assay, native mass-spectroscopy and chemical cross-linking mass spectroscopy (CLMS). This complex is reminiscent of a so-called TATA-box mimicry discovered previously in a TAF1/TBP complex.As part of the ongoing efforts in the Berger laboratory to determine the structure of human holo-TFIID, we furthermore produced and purified a large (~900 kDa) TFIID subassembly called 9TAF, which is composed of nine different TBP associated factors. We carried out negative stain EM studies and random conical tilt (RCT) analysis on 9TAF to obtain low resolution structural information. These studies set the stage for future cryo-EM studies of this 9TAF complex to obtain a high(er) resolution model to decipher the inner workings of human TFIID.

Les émulsions représentent une large gamme de produits alimentaires, cosmétiques et pharmaceutiques. Pour assurer leur stabilité, une interface chargée de tensioactif est nécessaire. Cette interface constitue une barrière contre la coalescence mais gène la libération des principes actifs encapsulés. Dans cette thèse, une nouvelle méthode d’émulsification est développée. Elle consiste à utiliser des ultrasons à hautes fréquences (UHF) (1,7MHz) qui permettent d’avoir des émulsions stables sans émulsifiants tout en évitant les effets mécaniques violents de la cavitation acoustique présente aux basses fréquences. L’étude des répartitions granulométriques a montré une diminution significative de la taille des gouttelettes d’huile au cours du temps de traitement par ultrasons de hautes fréquences. Le suivi du pH des émulsions montre une forte diminution et une charge de surface importante des gouttelettes est enregistrée ce qui montre une accumulation d’ions OH- à l’interface l'huile/eau conduisant à la stabilité des gouttelettes dans l'émulsion. La conductivité des émulsions diminue durant l’émulsification traduisant une baisse de la quantité d’ions en solution, ce qui indique la formation de la couche contre ions (charge positive) autour de la structure des OH-. Les résultats montrent une stabilisation électrostatique des émulsions obtenue par la formation d’une double couche ionique autour des gouttelettes d’huile. Contrairement aux procédés d’émulsification standard, les émulsions faites par ce procédé montrent une stabilité de 30 jours à 37°C. L’utilisation des émulsions sans émulsifiant faites par UHF pour la vectorisation de CoQ10 montre une prolifération cellulaire plus élevée que dans le cas des émulsions avec émulsifiant. Une étude approfondie des émulsions sans émulsifiant par diffusion des rayons X aux petits angles (SAXS) et par résonance magnétique nucléaire (RMN) a été réalisée et comparée à des émulsions contenant un ou plusieurs émulsifiants. L’étude SAXS montre clairement l’absence de micelles de tensioactifs pour les émulsions sans émulsifiants et les résultats de la RMN montrent l’absence de la signature des tensioactifs et des phospholipides dans les émulsions faites par ultrasons de hautes fréquences. Par ailleurs, la RMN montre l’absence d’interaction entre des différents constituants de l’émulsion et aussi l’absence de structure néoformées / Emulsions are systems containing two immiscible liquids, one dispersed as droplets (dispersed phase) throughout the other (continuous phase). When emulsifier is added, it may interact with the other formulations compounds creating new emulsion properties. Therefore, it becomes difficult to study the role of oil phase alone on emulsion properties. In this thesis, emulsifier free emulsion was developed with high frequency ultrasounds (HFU) generated by piezoelectric ceramic transducer vibrating at 1.7 MHz. pH measurement showed significant decrease and negative electrophoretic mobility showed the accumulation of OH- at oil/water interface leading to droplets stability in the emulsion. Emulsions conductivity showed a decrease of the ions quantity in solution, which indicated formation of positive charge layer around OH- structure. They constituted a double ionic layer around oil particles providing emulsion stability. This study showed a strong correlation between turbidity measurement and proportion of emulsified oil. Unlike standard emulsification methods, emulsions made this process demonstrates stability for 30 days at 37 °C. The use of emulsions without emulsifier made by HFU for vectoring CoQ10 shows a higher cell proliferation in the case of emulsion without emulsifier. A study of emulsions without emulsifer by small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (1H NMR) was performed and compared to emulsions containing emulsifiers. NMR analysis showed no interactions between different compounds and the HFU manufacturing process did not cause chemical degradation or neoformed compounds. SAXS showed a thin interface between two phases with different electronic density (water/oil) for emulsions with and without emulsifiers. For emulsion with emulsifiers SAXS showed surfactant micelles diffusion signal which doesn’t appear in the emulsion without emulsifiers

Made available in DSpace on 2015-03-03T15:02:47Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 IzabellyLL_TESE.pdf: 7496453 bytes, checksum: d39fc896ff5d9d4982952835ef786c26 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-07-12 / The molecular distillation is show as an alternative for separation and purification of various kinds of materials. The process is a special case of evaporation at high vacuum, in the order from 0.001 to 0.0001 mmHg and therefore occurs at relatively lower temperatures, preserves the material to be purified. In Brazil, molecular distillation is very applied in the separation of petroleum fractions. However, most studies evaluated the temperature of the evaporator, condenser temperature and flow such variables of the molecular distillation oil. Then, to increase the degree of recovery of the fraction of the distillate obtained in the process of the molecular distillation was evaluated the use nonionic surfactants of the class of nonylphenol ethoxylate, molecules able to interact in the liquid-liquid and liquid-vapor interface various systems. In this context, the aim of this work was to verify the influence of commercial surfactant (Ultranex-18 an Ultranex-18-50) in the molecular distillation of a crude oil. The physicochemical characterization of the oil was realized and the petroleum shown an API gravity of 42?, a light oil. Initially, studied the molecular distillation without surfactant using star design experimental (2H ? ) evaluated two variables (evaporator temperature and condenser temperature) and answer variable was the percentage in distillate obtained in the process (D%). The best experimental condition to molecular distillation oil (38% distillate) was obtained at evaporator and condenser temperatures of 120 ?C and 10 ? C, respectively. Subsequently, to determine the range of surfactant concentration to be applied in the process, was determined the critical micellar concentration by the technique of scattering X-ray small angle (SAXS). The surfactants Ultranex-18 an Ultranex-18-50 shown the critical micelle concentration in the range of 10-2 mol/L in the hydrocarbons studied. Then, was applied in the study of distillation a concentration range from 0.01 to 0.15 mol/L of the surfactants (Ultranex- 18 and 50). The use of the nonionic surfactant increased the percentage of hydrocarbons in the range from 5 to 9 carbons in comparison to the process carried out without surfactant, and in some experimental conditions the fraction of light compounds in the distilled was over 700% compared to the conventional process. The study showed that increasing the degree of ethoxylation of Ultranex18 to Ultranex-50, the compounds in the range of C5 to C9 reduced the percentage in the distilled, since the increase of the hydrophilic part of the surfactant reduces its solubility in the oil. Finally, was obtained an increase in the degree of recovery of light hydrocarbons, comparing processes with and without surfactant, obtained an increase of 10% and 4% with Ultranex-18 and Ultranex-50, respectively. Thus, it is concluded that the Ultranex- 18 surfactant showed a higher capacity to distillation compared with Ultranex-50 and the application of surfactant on the molecular distillation from petroleum allowed for a greater recovery of light compounds in distillate / A destila??o molecular apresenta-se como uma alternativa para separa??o e purifica??o de diversos tipos de materias. O processo ? um caso especial de evapora??o a alto v?cuo, na ordem 0,001 a 0,0001 mmHg, e consequentemente, ocorre ? temperaturas relativamente mais baixas, preservando ao m?ximo o material a ser purificado. No Brasil, a destila??o molecular ? muito aplicada na separa??o de fra??es de petr?leo. No entanto, boa parte dos estudos relacionados a destila??o molecular de petr?leo avalia apenas as vari?veis do processo, tais como: a temperatura do evaporador, temperatura do condensador, vaz?o e etc. Dessa forma, com o prop?sito de favorecer a destila??o molecular, visando aumentar o grau de recupera??o da fra??o do destilado obtido no processo, avaliou-se a aplica??o de tensoativos n?o i?nicos da classe do nonilfenol etoxilado, uma vez que tais mol?culas apresentam a capacidade de interagir na interface l?quido-l?quido e l?quido-vapor de diversos sistemas. Portanto, o objetivo deste trabalho foi verificar a influ?ncia de tensoativo comerciais do tipo Ultranex-18 e Ultranex-50 na destila??o molecular de um petr?leo bruto. Nesse estudo, realizou-se a caracteriza??o f?sico-qu?mica do petr?leo a ser destilado, determinando-se que o mesmo apresentava um grau API de 42?, o que confere a amostra a ser destilada uma caracter?stica de fra??o leve. Na etapa do estudo das destila??es moleculares realizadas sem tensoativo, aplicou-se um planejamento estrela (2K ? ) com duas vari?veis (temperatura do evaporador e temperatura do condensador), tendo como resposta a porcentagem de destilado obtida no processo (%D). Verificou-se que a melhor condi??o experimental para a destila??o molecular do petr?leo estudado foi aplicando uma temperatura do evaporador de 120?C e do condensador de 10?C, obtendo-se uma porcentagem de destilado de 38 %. Posteriormente, para determinar uma faixa de concentra??o de tensoativo a ser aplicado no processo determinou-se a concentra??o micelar critica aplicando a t?cnica de espalhamento de raio-X de baixo ?ngulo (SAXS). Atrav?s da t?cnica, constatou-se que para os tensoativos da classe do nonilfenois etoxilados a concentra??o micelar cr?tica encontra-se na faixa de 10-2 mol/L para os hidrocarbonetos estudados. A partir dessa constata??o, aplicou-se no estudo das destila??es com tensoativo (Ultranex-18 e 50) uma faixa de concentra??o entre 0,01 a 0,15 mol/L. Nesta etapa, verificou-se que a presen?a do tensoativo n?o i?nico aumentou a destila??o de hidrocarbonetos na faixa de 5 a 9 carbonos em compara??o ao processo realizado sem tensoativo, e que em alguns casos a fra??o de compostos leves no destilado do processo foi superior a 700 % em rela??o ao processo convencional. O estudo mostrou que o aumento do grau de etoxila??o do Ultranex-18 para o Ultranex-50, reduziu a porcentagem de compostos destilados na faixa de C5 a C9, uma vez que o aumento da parte hidrof?lica do tensoativo reduz sua solubilidade no petr?leo. Finalmente, verificou-se que o aumento no grau de recupera??o de hidrocarbonetos leves, comparando os processos com o tensoativo e sem tensoativo, resultou em um aumento de 10 % para o processo empregando o Ultranex-18 e 4% para o Ultranex-50. Dessa forma, conclui-se que o Ultranex-18 apresentou maior capacidade de destila??o frente ao Ultranex-50 e que a aplica??o de tensoativo na destila??o molecular de petr?leo favoreceu o processo, j? que houve o aumento da concentra??o de compostos leves obtidos

Ionic Liquids (ILs) has been attracting attention, both from academia and industry, given the numerous applications of these systems. ILs are salts, usually composed by an organic ion, and a counterion which could be organic or inorganic, and, interestingly they are found at liquid state at room temperature. Our interest in studying ILs comes from its low toxicity. Some recent studies have shown that the toxicity of the ILs ishigher than believed, in particular for biologically relevant systems. The main goal of this research is to study the influence of the ionic liquid 1-tetradecyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride ([C14MIM][Cl]) with membrane systems. To do so, we made use of different lipids: POPC, Sphingomyelin, Cholesterol, POPG, DPPC, DPPG and DMPC. For each of these systems, the influence of ILs concentration were elucidated by means of a systematic study through different experimental techniques: Small Angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), dynamic light scattering (DLS), fluorescence anisotropy, optical microscopy and z-potential. Since [C14MIM][Cl] has a positive charge on the imidazolium group, the superficial charge of all vesicles increased. For zwitterionic vesicles no significant change in size and melting temperature were noticed. The imidazolium-based ionic liquid diminished the gel-fluid transition temperature for negatively charged lipids. For DPPC:DPPG (1:1), for instance, the transition temperature decreased from 42.50±0.13oC to 25.27±0.33oC and for DPPG from 46.12±0.22 oC to 36.6±0.38 oC. For DPPG, the vesicle hydrodynamic diameter increased from 84±0.1nm to 176±0.1nm, whereas for DPPC:DPPG it increased from 95±0.1nm to 196±0.1nm. The electronic density profile, obtained by SAXS, supported the penetration of the [C14MIM][Cl] into the negative bilayer structure. 15 mol% of [C14MIM][Cl] increased the polar head thickness of DPPC vesicles from 11.1±0.6 Å to 18.0±0.7 Å, without alter significantly the inner region of the membrane.Qualitative results obtained with optical microscopy showed that the IL incorporation destabilize the membrane asymmetry (between the leaflets) leading to the formation of pores (evidenced by optical contrast lost) and the presence of buds. We believe that this work could improve the understanding of the effects of ILs in the presence of biological relevant systems / Os líquidos iônicos (LI) tem atraído grande atenção, tanto da academia quanto da indústria, devido às suas numerosas aplicações. LI são sais, normalmente compostos por um íon orgânico, e um contra-íon que pode ser orgânico ou inorgânico, mas que tem como característica ser encontrado no estado líquido à temperaturas próximas a ambiente. Nosso interesse em estudar LIs vem de sua baixa toxicidade, atribuída a sua baixa volatilidade. Entretanto, alguns estudos recentes mostraram que a toxicidade dos LI é maior do que se acreditava, em particular com sistemas de relevância biológica.O objetivo principal desta dissertação é estudar a influência do líquido iônico 1-tetradecil-3-metilimidazólio cloreto ([C14MIM][Cl]) com sistemas de membrana. Para isso, utilizamos diferentes lipídios, como o POPC, esfingomielina, colesterol, POPG, DPPC,DPPG e o DMPC. Para cada um destes sistemas, a influência da concentração de LI foi elucidada por meio de um estudo sistemático através de diferentes técnicas experimentais, tais como: espalhamento de raio-X a baixos ângulos (SAXS), espalhamento dinâmico de luz (DLS), anisotropia de fluorescência, microscopia óptica e potencial-z. Uma vez que o componente iônico de [C14MIM][Cl] tem uma carga positiva no grupo imidazólio, a carga superficial de todas as vesículas estudadas aqui aumentou. Entretanto, para asvesículas compostas pelos lipídeos zwitteriónicos, não tenha sido observada qualquer alteração significativa no tamanho e na temperatura de transição de fase gel-fluido. O [C14MIM][Cl] altera a organização interna entre as moléculas de lipídio com carga negativa. Consequentemente, à medida que a quantidade de LI aumenta, a temperatura de transição de fase diminui e o tamanho médio das vesículas aumenta. Para o sistema DPPC:DPPG (1:1) a temperatura de transição de fase caiu de 42.50 ± 0.13 oC para 25.27 ± 0.33 oC e para as vesículas de DPPG de 46.12±0.22 oC para 36.6±0.38 oC. Quanto ao diâmetro hidrodinâmico médio, no caso do DPPG este valor aumentou de 84±0.1 nm para 176±0.1 nm, enquanto que para a mistura DPPC:DPPG (1:1) ele passou de 95±0.1nm para 196±0.1nm. Indicando assim que o LI incorpora na bicamada lipídica negativamente carregada. O perfil de densidade eletrônica, obtido por SAXS, confirma a penetração do [C14MIM][Cl] na bicamada lipídica. Diferentemente, para a membrana lipídica zwitteriónica o LI tende a se situar perto da região da cabeça polar sem afetar significativamente a região do interior da bicamada lipídica. Por outro lado, a presença de15 mol% de [C14MIM][Cl] aumenta a espessura da região polar das bicamadas das vesículas de DPPC de ~ 11.1±0.6 Å para ~ 18.0±0.7 Å. Os resultados qualitativos da microscopia óptica mostraram que a incorporação da LI desestabiliza a assimetria da membrana entre as camadas interna e externa, além de sugerir o aparecimento de poros (evidenciado pela perda do contraste ótico das vesículas) e estruturas chamadas de buds. Esperamos que este trabalho melhore a compreensão dos efeitos do LI na presença de organismos biológicos.

Estudos sistemáticos utilizando a técnica de SAXS foram realizados no síncrotom do LURE (Orsay) com feixe intenso de geometria pontua:, para descrever a cinética e as estruturas obtidas durante as etapas de transformação sol -> gel úmido -> gel seco -> vidros de sílica . As análises foram feitas em termos de uma lei de potência I = q-? cujo expoente está relacionado a dimensão fractal de massa ou de superfície das estruturas. Devido a polidispersividade das unidades espalhadoras as dimensões fractais verificadas podem ser resultados de dimensões reais encobertas por uma distribuição de tamanhos. As curvas obtidas para a cinética de gelificação e envelhecimento dos géis úmidos mostram expoentes que indicam fractalidade de massa e, posteriormente, de superfície. Uma microestrutura composta, que pode resultar de uma agregação limitada por difusão (DLA) seguido de agregação de agregados (C-C) foi observado nas soluções básicas. Por outro lado, os agregados ácidos parecem surgir do crescimento contínuo de cadeias até atingir a interligação com outros agregados com uma cinética que pode ser descrita pelo modelo DLA. No estado de aerogeis outras técnicas como picnometria de mercúrio e hélio, microscopia eletrônica de transmissão e adsorção de gás de nitrogênio, foram também aproveitadas. Nestes materiais encontramos em uma faixa estreita de escala, um expoente indicando fractalidade de massa, embora com superfície lisa. Os resultados estão de acordo com um modelo de estrutura que tem uma matriz de SiO2 densa. A estrutura fractal desaparece durante o tratamento térmico de densificação devido ao rearranjo estrutural. / Systematic SAXS studies have been performed at the LURE synchrotron (Orsay) using an intense beam of point-like cross-section to describe the kinetic and the structure obtained during the sol-> humid gel -> dry gel ->silica glass. The analysis were done in terms of a power law, I = q-? , whose exponent is related to mass and surface fractal dimensions of the structures. Due to polidispersity of the scattering units the found fractal dimensions can be \"smeared\" dimensions that result from a size distribution. All the kinetic and aging humids curves showed evidenced of fractal structures. A composed microstructure that can be originated by clustering of clusters (C-C) of primary units grown by diffusion limited-aggregation (DLA), was observed for basic gels. By other hand, the acidic cluster seems to grow continuously reaching gelation through crosslinking of the clusters. The DLA model seems to describe this process. In the aerogels study others techniques like density measurements using Hg and He, TEM and adsorption of N2 gas were done along with SAXS measurements. Here we could find a narrow range in which the system is a mass fractal, although its surface has been already smoothened. The results agree with a dense SiO2 matrix model. During the densification no fractal structure was verified due to structural rearrangements at high temperature.

L'effet des traitements hydrothermiques et l’effet des arômes sur la structure de l'amidon et de ses propriétés physiques ont été étudiés. L’amidon de blé natif a été traité à 2 hydratations différentes (rapports eau-amidon: 50/50 et 80/20 g/g) et à 2 températures (65 et 85 °C) en présence d’ arômes (hexanoate d'éthyle et de 2-hexanone). Les échantillons fraîchement préparés ont été soumis à l’analyse calorimétrique (AED) et au dosage d’ arôme. Aucun complexe d'inclusion entre amidon et arôme n’a pu être détecté par AED cependant le résultat de l'analyse aromatique a prouvé qu'il y avait des interactions arôme-amidon. Les deux composés d’arôme (hexanoate d'éthyle et 2-hexanone) ont interagi avec l'amidon à des teneurs comparables. Les pertes d’arômes ont été trouvées les plus élevées dans les échantillons traités aux plus hautes hydratation et température . La perte d’arôme était principalement liée à l’évaporation lors des traitements hydrothermiques. Après les traitements hydrothermiques, les échantillons ont été lyophilisés ont montré une stabilité d’arôme à la lyophilisation. Les échantillons lyophilisés ont été soumis à diverses études: DSC (Tg), RVA, la taille des granules, XRD, WAXS, SAXS étude et de stockage. Les traitements hydrothermiques ont conduit à des échantillons avec des propriétés différentes. A haute hydratation, la température influence la taille des granules et des propriétés rhéologiques à la cuisson (pasting). Les échantillons chauffés à 65 °C présentaient des tailles de granules significativement plus importantes, une viscosité maximale (en RVA) inférieure à celles des échantillons chauffés à 85 °C mais de significative différence en % de cristallinité. A faible hydratation, la température de chauffage n’avait pas d’influencer significative sur la taille des granules, mais un effet significatif sur les propriétés rhéologiques à la cuisson, le degré de cristallinité et le profil SAXS. Les échantillons chauffés à 65°C avaient une viscosité maximale supérieure , un degré de cristallinité plus élevé et des pics SAXS plus importants qu’après un chauffage à 85 °C. La teneur résiduelle en arôme n'a eu aucune influence significative sur la structure, mais semble affecter les propriétés rhéologiques à la cuisson. En ce qui concerne l'étude à la conservations, les échantillons ont été stockés à 58 et 75% d'humidité relative et étudiés par analyse SPME, par extraction d’arôme et par AED pour un suivide relaxation d’enthalpie après de 2, 4 et 14 semaines de stockage. Les échantillons avaient une plus grande libération de l'arôme à 75% HR et l’hexanoate d’éthyle montré une plus grande libération de 2-hexanone. Les échantillons ont montré une augmentation de relaxation d'enthalpie de lors d'un stockage. / The effect of hydrothermal treatments and flavours addition on starch structure and its physical properties were studied. Native wheat starch was treated at 2 different hydrations (water-starch ratios: 50/50 and 80/20 g w/w) and temperatures (65 and 85 °C) in the presence of flavours (ethyl hexanoate and 2-hexanone). The freshly prepared samples were subjected to DSC and flavour analysis. Flavour inclusion complex could not be detected by DSC, however the result of flavour analysis proved that there were flavours interactions with starch. Both ethyl hexanoate and 2-hexanone interacted with starch at similar rates. The highest flavour loss was found in the samples at high hydration and heated at 85 °C. The loss of flavour was mainly due to vaporisation during hydrothermal treatments. After hydrothermal treatments, the samples subjected to freeze-drying and they showed flavour stability upon freeze-drying. The freeze-dried samples were subjected to various studies: DSC (Tg), RVA, granule size, XRD, WAXS, SAXS and storage study. The hydrothermal treatments resulted in samples with different properties. At high hydration, temperature influenced granule size and pasting properties. The samples heated at 65 °C had significantly greater granule diameter, lower peak viscosity than samples heated at 85 °C and no significantly difference in % crystallinity. At low hydration, heating temperature had no significantly influence on granule diameter but significantly affected pasting properties, % crystallinity and SAXS profile. The samples heated at 65 °C had a greater peak viscosity, % crystallinity and greater peak on SAXS than after a treatment at 85 °C. The residual flavour contenthad no significant influence on structure but affected pasting properties. Regarding storage study, the samples were stored at 58 and 75 % RH and withdrawn for SPME, flavour residual extraction and DSC (enthalpy of relaxation) at 2, 4 and 14 weeks of storage. The samples had greater flavour release at 75% RH and ethyl hexanoate showed greater release than 2-hexanone. The samples showed increasing of enthalpy relaxation upon storage.

The techniques of small-angle x-ray scattering (SAXS) and grazing-incidence small-angle x-ray scattering (GISAXS) have successfully been used for many years in the analysis of nanostructures in non-crystalline samples, e.g., polymers, metallic alloys, ceramics, and glasses. In many specimens, however, the nanostructure is not distributed homogeneously, but instead varies as a function of position in the sample. Conventional SAXS or GISAXS measurements on such heterogeneous samples merely yield an averaged scattering pattern of all the different structures present along the x-ray beam path. In this thesis, scanning tomography is combined with SAXS and GISAXS, revealing the individual local scattering cross section at each position on a virtual section through the sample. The technique thereby offers unique analytical possibilities in heterogeneous specimens. A brief review of the physics of x rays and x-ray scattering is given, before the methods of tomographic SAXS and GISAXS are introduced. Experimental requirements and limitations of both methods are discussed, including aspects of sampling, local rotational invariance and x-ray beam coherence. Experiments performed at the beamline BW4 at HASYLAB at DESY, Hamburg, Germany are described, illustrating the capabilities of the method. Finally, an outlook on possible future developments in tomographic small-angle x-ray scattering is given. / Die Methoden der Röntgenkleinwinkelstreuung (SAXS) und Röntgenkleinwinkelstreuung unter streifendem Einfall (GISAXS) werden seit vielen Jahren erfolgreich eingesetzt zur Analyse von Nanostrukturen in nicht-kristallinen Proben, z.B. Polymeren, metallischen Legierungen, Keramiken und Gläsern. In vielen Proben ist die Nanostruktur allerdings nicht homogen verteilt, sondern variiert als Funktion des Ortes in der Probe. Konventionelle SAXS- oder GISAXS-Messungen an solch heterogenen Proben liefern lediglich ein über alle unterschiedlichen Strukturen entlang des Röntgenstrahls gemitteltes Streubild. In dieser Arbeit wird Rastertomographie mit SAXS und GISAXS kombiniert und so der lokale Streuquerschnitt an jedem Ort auf einem virtuellen Schnitt durch die Probe gewonnen. Diese Technik bietet so einzigartige Analysemöglichkeiten von heterogenen Proben. Es wird zunächst ein kurzer Überblick über die Physik der Röntgenstrahlung und Röntgenstreuung gegeben, bevor die Methoden der SAXS- und GISAXS-Tomographie eingeführt werden. Die experimentellen Anforderungen und Grenzen beider Methoden werden besprochen, wobei Aspekte der Abtastung, der lokalen Rotationsinvarianz und der Kohärenz im Röntgenstrahl eine Rolle spielen. Experimente, die an der Messstrecke BW4 am HASYLAB bei DESY, Hamburg, durchgeführt wurden, werden beschrieben, um die Möglichkeiten der Methode zu illustrieren. Schließlich wird ein Ausblick auf mögliche zukünftige Entwicklungen der Kleinwinkelstreutomographie gegeben.

Cationic polymers have shown potential as gene delivery vectors due to their ability to condense DNA and protect it from cellular and restriction nucleases. Dendrimers are hyperbranched macromolecules with precisely defined molecular weights and highly symmetric branches stemming from a central core. The nanosize, tunable surface chemistries and ease of surface functionalization has made dendrimers an attractive alternative to conventional linear polymers for DNA delivery applications. The commercially available, cationic dendrimer poly(amidoamine) or PAMAM is the most widely studied dendrimer for use as a gene delivery vector. The aim of this dissertation is to provide an increased understanding of the packaging and forces within PAMAM–DNA complexes. In Chapter 4, we will discuss the effect of molecular chain architecture on DNA-DNA intermolecular forces by examining DNA condensed by low generation (G0 & G1) PAMAM and comparing them to comparably charged linear arginine peptides. Using osmotic stress coupled with X-ray scattering, we are able to determine the structure and forces within dendrimer-DNA complexes, or dendriplexes. We show that PAMAM–DNA assemblies display significantly different physical behavior than linear cation–DNA assemblies. In Chapter 5, we examine the role of pH on condensation in these same low generation PAMAM-DNA complexes. PAMAM dendrimers have both terminal primary amines and internal tertiary amines with different pKas of approximately 9 and 6, respectively. We show changes in the pH at condensation greatly influence the resulting packaging as well as the resulting phase behavior for PAMAM dendriplexes. In Chapter 6, we examine the packaging of DNA by G4 PAMAM as a function of the percent zwitterionic modification. Many cationic polymers, including PAMAM, have shown high transfection efficiency in cell culture and potential for in vitro and in vivo applications, but its development is hindered by cytotoxicity in many cell lines and tissues. We hypothesize that zwitterionic PAMAM (zPAMAM) represent a new means to tune polymer-DNA interactions through PAMAM surface charge potentially enhancing intracellular unpackaging while reducing cellular toxicity. These zPAMAM complexes are currently under investigation for their potential as safer and more efficient materials for DNA delivery.