Este trabalho consiste na utilização de técnicas de caracterização elétrica e óptica para filmes de SnO2 puro e dopado com Sb+3 ou Nb+5, preparados através da técnica de molhamento -\'dip coating\'- a partir de suspensões coloidais. Em contraste com a extensa aplicação deste filmes e ao sucesso empírico dos dispositivos em comercialização, a compreensão dos passos elementares dos mecanismos de transporte elétricos, dos processos de espalhamento, do papel dos dopantes, dos possíveis estados de carga das armadilhas presentes, das barreiras devido aos contornos de grãos e da microestrutura ainda é pequena. Utilizando-se técnicas de caracterização tais como: corrente-voltagem em função da temperatura,corrente-voltagem com incidência de luz, absorção óptica e fotocondutividade objetivou-se o conhecimento dos mecanismo de transporte dos portadores de carga e a presença de defeitos-armadilha nestes filmes visando a melhoria das propriedades de transporte dos filmes de SnO2 produzidos pela técnica de molhamento. Esta técnica de deposição influencia nas propriedades elétricas e óticas. Filmes recém-depositados apresentam alta resistividade. Posterior tratamento térmico em vácuo e incidência de luz ultravioleta melhoram a condutividade das amostras. Este fenômeno está ligado a adsorção química e a fotodesorção de oxigênio na superfície do filme / This work is a contribution to optical and electrical characterization of pure and Sb+3 or Nb+5 doped SnO2 thin films prepared by sol-gel dip coating technique. In contrast to widespread applications of these films, and in contrast to the success of device commercialization, the elementary steps of the electrical transport mechanisms, electron scattering, influence of dopants, possible charge state of traps, potential barrier due grain boundary and microstructure are not fully understood yet. We have used characterization techniques such as current-voltage as function of temperature, current-voltage under steady monochromatic light, optical absorption and photoconductivity, which have yield knowledge of carrier transport and electron trapping in these films, giving an improvement of SnO2 films deposited by dip-coating. This deposition technique has influence on electrical and optical properties. Freshly deposited films exhibit high resistivity. Heat-treatment under vacuum and ultra-violet photo-excitation improve the conductivity of the samples. Chemisorptions and photo-desorption of oxygen are suggested to be the principal cause

The recent discovery of layered transition metal carbides (MXenes) is one of the most important developments in two-dimensional (2D) materials. Preliminary theoretical and experimental studies suggest a wide range of potential applications for MXenes. The MXenes are prepared by chemically etching ‘A’-layer element from layered ternary metal carbides, nitrides and carbonitrides (MAX phases) through aqueous acid treatment, which results in various surface terminations such as hydroxyl, oxygen or fluorine. It has been found that surface terminations play a critical role in defining MXene properties and affects MXene performance in different applications such as electrochemical energy storage, electromagnetic interference shielding, water purification, sensors and catalysis. Also, the electronic, thermoelectric, structural, plasmonic and optical properties of MXenes largely depend upon surface terminations. Thus, controlling the surface chemistry if MXenes can be an efficient way to improve their properties. This research mainly aims to perform surface modifications of two commonly studied MXenes; Ti2C and Ti3C2, via chemical, thermal or physical processes to enhance electrochemical energy storage properties. The as-prepared and surface modified MXenes have been studied as electrode materials in Li-ion batteries (LIBs) and supercapacitors (SCs). In pursuit of desirable MXene surface, we have developed an in-situ room temperature oxidation process, which resulted in TiO2/MXene nanocomposite and enhanced Li-ion storage. The idea of making metal oxide and MXene nanocomposites was taken to the next level by combining a high capacity anode materials – SnO2 – and MXene. By taking advantage of already existing surface functional groups (–OH), we have developed a composite of SnO2/MXene by atomic layer deposition (ALD) which showed enhanced capacity and excellent cyclic stability. Thermal annealing of MXene at elevated temperature under different atmospheres was carried out and detailed surface chemistry was studied to analyze the change in surface functional groups and its effect on electrochemical performance. Also, we could replace surface functional groups with desirable heteroatoms (e.g., nitrogen) by plasma processing and studied their effect on energy storage properties. This work provides an experimental baseline for surface modification of MXene and helps to understand the role of various surface functional groups in MXene electrode electrochemical performance.

This thesis deals with the detection of gases. Based on the research, the theoretical part is devoted to the principles and construction of chemical gas sensors, especially the chemoresistive gas sensors, mainly with the active layer consisting of metal oxides and carbon nanotubes. In the second half of the theoretical part the carbon nanostructures, their properties and the methodology of preparation are reviewed. The experimental part deals with the type of support structure, preparation of the active layer and the method of its deposition and he principle of detection. In the results and discussion, the thesis focuses on the detailed processing of the results and the evaluation of the response ammonia, the impact of the modifications and procedures. In the end, the results obtained are compared, both with each other and with the relevant literature.

In this project, samples with a metal/semiconductor/metal structure were fabricated and investigated with the potential application as the interconnecting layer of a tandem solar cell in mind. Degenerately doped p-Si and n-Si were used as bottom (metal like) contacts, as Si represents one of the most common materials for the bottom cell of tandem devices. A transparent, wide bandgap semiconductor in the form of SnO₂ was investigated for the intermediate layer as it is a common choice for the selective back contact of top cells based on perovskites. However, atomic layer deposition (ALD) was used as an alternative to the typical solution based application of the SnO₂ layer. The top layer was simply chosen as a triple layer metal contact stack (Ni-Al-Ni) to provide for good contact with the SnO₂.The goal of the project was to study the electrical properties of the samples through I-V measurements and how the I-V characteristic depends on the oxide’s thickness under the possible influence of the contact areas. Three different thicknesses of the SnO2 layer were used for the p-Si sample: 50, 200 and 400 Å. For the n-Si samplesonly one thickness (400 Å) was studied. Using the diode equation, four parameterswere calculated (Jo, Rsh, Rs and n) for different measurements combing different contact configurations. The latter included measurements between the front and the back of the samples and measurements between contacts on the front with and/orwithout SnO2 layer. From the results, it was concluded that as the thickness of SnO₂ increases, the saturation current (Jo) decreases while both shunt resistance (Rsh) andseries resistance (Rs) increase. The ideality factor (n) neither depends significantly on effective area, nor on SnO2 thickness. The p-Si and n-Si samples show similar behavior in the case of 400 Å SnO2 thickness. The contact areas only appreciatively affect Jo, but it is not clear what lies behind this dependence. In all cases, the top contacts obtained major wear during measurements, reducing the number of trustworthy measurements that could be used on the smaller areas. The resistivity through the oxide layer was calculated to ρSnO₂ = 247±96 MΩ cm, which is higher than for SnO₂ deposited by other techniques, and too high for tandem cell application. Schottky barriers formed at the interfaces will typically limit the charge transport further.

In this work the influence of solid electrolyte additives on the gas sensing properties of tin oxide layers was investigated systematically for the first time. NASICON (NAtrium, Super Ionic CONductor, Na(1+x)Zr2SixP(3-x)O12; 0 <= x <= 3) was used as a model for solid electrolyte additives. The structure of that material is ideally suitable for studies of the correlation between material parameters and the gas sensitivity of the layers. In the NASICON structure the content of mobile Na+-ions can be varied by a factor of four resulting in a simultaneous change of the ionic conductivity sigma(Na+) by approximately three orders of magnitude without considerable structural alterations. Powders of SnO2 and NASICON (x = 0; 2.2; 3) were prepared separately by means of sol-gel routes and mixed in a volume ratio of 80/20. Pastes were prepared from these powders with different compositions and screen printed on alumina substrates with a fourfold structure of thin film gold electrode combs. Four different compositions were characterised simultaneously at elevated temperatures in various gas atmospheres. The conductivity of the layers, when measured in air, decreases considerably with increasing Na+-content in the NASICON additive. This is correlated with enhanced activation energy of the electronic conductivity. The sensitivity of the layers to polar organic molecules like R-OH (alcohols), R-HO (aldehydes) and ROOH (carboxylic acids) is highly enhanced by the NASICON additive. This is observed especially on the admixtures with NASICON of high Na+-content (x = 2.2 and x = 3). On the other hand, the sensitivity to substances with mid-standing functional groups like 2-propanol or propanone can not be enhanced by NASICON additives. Furthermore the sensitivity of these composite layers to CO, H2, NH3, methane, propane, propene and toluene (all exposed as admixtures with air) is lower than the sensitivity of pure SnO2-layers. These observations are well correlated with the results of gas consumption measurements on SnO2/NASICON powders by means of FTIR spectroscopy. In spite of the lack of surface analytical data, a model of surface chemical gas reactions based on a triple phase boundary (SnO2/NASICON/gas atmosphere) was developed, which explains the experimental observations qualitatively. It is assumed that the decrease of the electronic conductivity as observed in the presence of NASICON additives with increasing Na+-content is due to an enhanced electron depletion layer. This is formed in the SnO2 grains by Na+/e- interactions across the SnO2/NASICON-interface. The enormous enhancement of the sensitivity to polar organic molecules may be due to specific nucleophilic interactions with the Na+-ions and coupled Na+/e--interactions at the triple phase reaction sites.

Orientador: José Roberto Ribeiro Bortoleto / Resumo: O presente trabalho apresenta o estudo da interface de filmes finos de óxido de zinco (ZnO) e óxido de estanho (SnO2). Foram investigadas propriedades morfológicas e elétricas a respeito desta heterojunção. A deposição dos filmes foi realizada através da técnica de magnetron sputtering RF. A morfologia de superfície foi investigada e caracterizada através de técnicas de perfilometria e microscopia eletrônica de varredura com emissão de campo. O objetivo central desta pesquisa consiste em avaliar a interação SnO2/ZnO, uma vez que esse composto possui potencial para aplicações em células fotovoltaicas. Nessas aplicações o SnO2 atua como camada transportadora de elétrons, que apresenta como principal efeito o aumento no tempo de recombinação do par elétron-buraco, gerado quando a célula fotovoltaica é submetida à incidência luminosa. Para a investigação foram depositados filmes de SnO2 com diferentes espessuras sobre ZnO. Além disso, foram estudadas as propriedades eletrônicas do ZnO para garantir que este se comporta no trabalho como um óxido transparente condutivo (TCO do inglês Transparent Conductive Oxide), o que possibilita sua aplicação nas células fotovoltaicas. O sistema produzido apresentou características que indicam ser um material promissor para as aplicações citadas. / Abstract: This work presents the analysis of the interface between thin films of zinc oxide (ZnO) and tin oxide (SnO2). Morphological and electrical properties were investigated regarding this heterojunction. The deposition of the films was performed using the RF magnetron sputtering technique. The surface morphology was investigated and characterized by profiling and Scanning Electron Microscopy with Field Emission Gun Techniques. The main objective of this research is to evaluate the SnO2/ZnO interaction, since this compound has potential for applications in photovoltaic cells. In these applications the SnO2 acts as a electron transport layer presenting as a main effect the increase in the recombination time of the electron-hole pair, generated when the photovoltaic cell is submitted to incidence of light. For this investigation SnO2 films of different thicknesses were deposited on a reference ZnO film. In addition, the electronic properties of ZnO were evaluated to ensure that it behaves as a transparent conducting oxide (TCO), which enables its application in photovoltaic cells. The system produced presented characteristics that suggests it is a promising material for the aforementioned applications. / Doutor

No description available.

The Lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery is one of the major topics currently studied as a potential way to help in reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Major car manufacturers are interested in adapting the Li-ion battery in the power trains of Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEV) to improve fuel efficiency. Materials currently used for Li-ion batteries are LiCoO2 (LCO) and graphite—the first materials successfully integrated by Sony into Li-ion batteries. However, due to the high cost and polluting effect of cobalt (Co), and the low volumetric capacity of graphite, new materials are being sought out. LiFePO4 (LFP) and SnO2 are both good alternatives for the cathode and anode materials in Li-ion batteries. But, to create high-performance batteries, nano-sized carbon-coated particles of LFP and SnO2 are required. The present work attempts to develop a new synthesis method for these materials: organic template-assisted synthesis for three-dimensionally ordered macroporous (3DOM) LFP and porous SnO2. With the newly developed synthesis, highly pure materials were successfully synthesized and tested in Li-ion batteries. The obtained capacity for LFP was 158m Ah/g, which is equivalent to 93% of the theoretical capacity. The obtained capacity for SnO2 was 700 mAh/g, which is equivalent to 90% of the theoretical capacity. Moreover, Hybrid Pulse Power Characterization (HPPC) was used to test LFP and LCO for comparison and feasibility in PHEVs. HPPC is generally used to test the feasibility and capacity fade for PHEVs. It simulates battery use in various driving conditions of PHEVs to study pulse energy consumption and regeneration. In this case, HPPC was conducted on a half-cell battery for the first time to study the phenomena on a single active material, LFP or LCO. Based on the HPPC results, LFP proved to be more practical for use in PHEVs.

No description available.

Os eletrocatalisadores PtSnRh suportados em carbono-Sb2O5.SnO2, com 20% de massa de metal, foram preparados pelo método de redução por álcool, utilizando H2PtCl6.6H2O (Aldrich), RhCl3.xH2O (Aldrich) e SnCl2.2H2O (Aldrich), como fontes de metais; Sb2O5.SnO2 (ATO) e carbono Vulcan XC72, como suporte; e etileno glicol como agente redutor. Os eletrocatalisadores obtidos foram caracterizados fisicamente por difração de raios-X (DRX) e microscopia eletrônica de transmissão (MET). Por meio dos difratogramas observou-se que os eletrocatalisadores PtSnRh/C-ATO possuem estrutura CFC para a Pt e ligas de Pt, além de vários picos associados ao SnO2 e ATO. Os tamanhos médios dos cristalitos ficaram entre 2 e 4 nm. Por meio das micrografias verificou-se uma boa distribuição das nanopartículas sobre o suporte. Os tamanhos médios das partículas ficaram entre 2 e 3 nm, com boa concordância para os tamanhos médios dos cristalitos. Os desempenhos dos eletrocatalisadores foram analisados por meio de técnicas eletroquímicas e em condições reais de operação utilizando uma célula a combustível unitária alimentada diretamente por etanol. Na cronoamperometria, a temperatura de 50ºC, os eletrocatalisadores com proporção de 85%C+15%ATO para o suporte, apresentaram a melhor atividade, e as proporções atômicas que obtiveram os melhores resultados foram PtSnRh(70:25:05) e (90:05:05). Nos experimentos em célula, o eletrocatalisador PtSnRh(70:25:05)/85C+15ATO apresentou o melhor desempenho. / PtSnRh electrocatalysts supported on carbon-Sb2O5.SnO2, with metal loading of 20 wt%, were prepared by an alcohol-reduction process, using H2PtCl6.6H2O (Aldrich), RhCl3.xH2O (Aldrich) and SnCl2.2H2O (Aldrich), as source of metals; Sb2O5.SnO2 (ATO) and carbon Vulcan XC72, as support; and ethylene glycol as reducing agent. The electrocatalysts obtained were characterized physically by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The diffractograms showed which PtSnRh/C-ATO electrocatalysts had FCC structure of Pt and Pt alloys, besides several peaks associated with SnO2 and ATO. The average sizes of crystallites were between 2 and 4 nm. TEM micrographs showed a good distribution of the nanoparticles on the support. The average sizes of particles were between 2 and 3 nm, with good agreement for the average size of the crystallites. The performances of the electrocatalysts were analyzed by electrochemical techniques and in real conditions of operation using single direct ethanol fuel cell. In the chronoamperometry at 50ºC, the electrocatalysts with carbon (85 wt%) and ATO (15 wt%) support, showed the best activity, and the atomic proportions which achieved the best results were PtSnRh(70:25:05) e (90:05:05). PtSnRh(70:25:05)/85C+15ATO electrocatalysts showed the best performance in a direct ethanol fuel cell.