Various prior research studies have investigated the positive and negative effects of an audience on task performance, yet very little research has been conducted specifically on dancers. The focus of this study will be on the interaction between Goal Orientation and Level of Expertise in relation to social facilitation and task performance in ballet dancers. Participants were assessed based on performance with and without an audience at varying levels of expertise. The theory of social facilitation was examined in relation to several subject variables mentioned in background research. The results of this study suggest a trend supporting the hypothesis that a person's reaction to an audience is at least partly dependent on both Goal Orientation and Level of Expertise as explained by drive theory. This study gives dancers valuable insight on personal performance.

No description available.

À l’interface des neurosciences et de la psychologie sociale expérimentale, nos travaux explorent les bases neuronales de la « facilitation sociale » (effet facilitateur de la présence d’un congénère sur la performance) chez le singe à partir d'enregistrements électrophysiologiques unitaires dans le cortex préfrontal dorsolatéral et dans le cortex cingulaire antérieur. L'analyse de l’activité de 342 neurones liée au codage des résultats de l’action (signaux d'erreur et de succès) révèle que, dans leur grande majorité, les neurones de ces deux structures expriment une sensibilité différenciée à la présence du congénère. Trois populations de neurones sont découvertes: des neurones dits « sociaux », dont la décharge est plus ample en présence du congénère qu’en son absence, des neurones dits « asociaux », avec un pattern de décharge inverse, et une population plus minoritaire dite « neutre », dont l’amplitude de décharge est la même dans ces deux conditions. Il apparaît que les relations entre le comportement et l'activité neuronale lors du codage des signaux d’erreur dépendent de la nature plus ou moins compatible des populations neuronales identifiées avec les contextes de performance eux-mêmes. Nos résultats indiquent une implication majeure des neurones sociaux dans les effets de facilitation sociale étudiés depuis un siècle dans plusieurs espèces animales et offrent un nouveau regard sur le cerveau social. Sans nier l’idée de régions entières spécialisées dans le traitement des informations sociales, nos travaux suggèrent que des populations neuronales dotées d’une sensibilité plus ou moins sociale coexistent et probablement interagissent à l’échelle du cerveau entier. / At the interface of neuroscience and experimental social psychology, our work explores the neural bases of « social facilitation » (the facilitating effect of the presence of a conspecific on performance) in monkeys using single-unit electrophysiological recordings in the dorsolateral part of the prefrontal cortex (PFDL) and the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). The analysis of the activity of 574 neurons coding for error signals and successes reveals that the vast majority of neurons in both structures express a differential sensitivity to social presence. Three populations of neurons are discovered : neurons called « social », exhibiting higher discharge rate in the presence of a conspecific than alone, neurons called « asocial », exhibiting a reverse discharge pattern, and neurons called « neutral », whose discharge magnitude is the same in both conditions. More importantly, it appears that the relationship between behavior and neural activity when encoding error feedback depends on whether the neuronal populations at stake are compatible or incompatible with the performance contexts themselves. Overall, our results indicate a major role of social neurons in social facilitation effects studied for a century in several animal species and offer a new look at the « social brain ». Without denying the idea of entire regions involved in the processing of social information, our work suggests that neuronal populations with varying degrees of social sensitivity actually coexist and probably interact across the whole brain.

Effects of exercise, social facilitation, and delayed conditioning after vi exercise on the learning behavior of 5 to 6-inch rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri, was measured in a conditioned avoidance response apparatus. The conditioning schedule contained an intertrial interval between alternate presentations of conditioned (light) and unconditioned (shock) stimuli. This randomization eliminated learning losses found in a previous study. Mean percentage avoidance, the measurement of learning, did not decrease significantly during conditioning trials. Exercised fish learned avoidance better than did non-exercised fish. Mean percentage avoidance for fish exercised at 0.5 ft/sec was 66.3; at 1.0 ft/ sec, 1.5 ft/sec, and no-exercise, mean percentage avoidance was 68.2, 68.9 and 65.0, respectively. Social facilitation affected learning in the one, two, and three fish per cell tests, where mean percentage avoidance was 55.5, 68.9, and 81.0 percent, respectively. A delay of 24 hours between exercise and conditioning resulted in decreased learning levels. Mean percentage avoidance was 60.3, 63.5, 67.7, and 53.7 for the 1-, 2-, 2-, and 24-hour delay tests, respectively; however, mean percentage avoidance for the last 60 trials of each test indicated the 1-, 2-, and 4-hour delay tests were all similar, over 70 percent, while mean percentage avoidance for the 24-hour delay test was only 57.8 percent.

Emerging adults- youth between the ages of 18-25- experience high rates of alcohol use and drinking-related consequences, yet risky drinking in this group seems to occur in the context of adaptive developmental processes. Such risk-taking behavior is thought to result from neurobehavioral changes impacting personality, cognitive development, and social functioning beginning in early adolescence. Youth seek out stimulation that, while objectively dangerous, may provide opportunity for evolutionary pay-offs. Social environmental cues signaling such pay-offs may facilitate risky behavior. This study aimed to manipulate social context, subsequent drinking-related behavior, and related shifts in risk and reward evaluation. Participants participated in a "focus group" and taste test of placebo beer (ad libitum drinking session) alone (Solo; SF condition) or in groups that either interacted in the focus group session (Social Facilitation; SF condition) or did not (Mere Presence; MP condition). Participants in the MP and SF conditions reported greater desire to drink and poured and drank more during the taste test than those in the S condition. SF participants reported the highest levels of post-manipulation affect valence, arousal, and positive group experience. Expected differences between conditions in risk/reward evaluation were not observed. Results indicate that despite differences in affective and social experiences between the group conditions, the simple presence of others had as strong an impact on drinking behavior as the social facilitation manipulation. Results underscore the complexity of social influences on human behavior.

No description available.

La présence des congénères constitue l’élément de base du contexte social, dont la psychologie sociale expérimentale tente depuis un siècle de comprendre les influences (positives et négatives) et autres mécanismes sous-jacents. Chez l’homme, ces influences repérables sur la cognition dépendent souvent de la capacité évaluative de la personne présente. À l’interface de la psychologie sociale, de la psychologie cognitive et des neurosciences intégratives, notre thèse est que la présence évaluative d’autrui (la présence de l’expérimentateur) affaiblit de manière transitoire le contrôle exécutif, avec une double influence : néfaste dans les activités complexes impliquant un conflit de réponses, et bénéfique dans les activités dont la réussite n’implique que l’émission de réponses automatiques. Nos résultats (quatre études) soutiennent la thèse défendue à partir du couplage de la tâche de Simon (permettant une mesure du contrôle exécutif) ou de son adaptation récente en version partagée (présence d’un coacteur) avec des enregistrements électromyographiques. Ces résultats confortent ainsi notre approche intégrative des influences attachées à la présence d’autrui, dont les implications pratiques sont fortes s’agissant notamment de l’étude des processus cognitifs en laboratoire. / The presence of conspecifics is the basic element of the social context, whose experimental social psychology has been trying for a century to understand the influences (positive and negative) and underlying mechanisms. In humans, these influences on cognition often depend on the evaluative capacity of the person present. At the interface of social psychology, cognitive psychology, and integrative neuroscience, our thesis is that the presence of evaluative others (experimenter presence) temporarily weakens executive control, with a negative influence in complex activities involving response conflict, and a beneficial influence in activities requiring only the emission of automatic responses to succeed. Our results (four studies) support our thesis based on the coupling of the Simon task (measuring executive control) or its recent adaptation (shared version implying the presence of a coactor) with electromyographic recordings. Our findings confirm our integrative approach of social presence effects, whose practical implications are strong, particularly with regard to the study of cognitive processes in the laboratory.

A depressão pós-parto (DPP) caracteriza-se por sintomas, no puerpério, como tristeza, falta de interesse ou prazer nas atividades, irritabilidade, choro freqüente e sensação de ser incapaz de lidar com novas situações. No Brasil, foram encontradas prevalências de 13,4% a 37,1% para o transtorno. Uma hipótese evolucionista prevê que os sintomas da DPP poderiam modelar a tomada de decisão da mãe sobre o investimento parental em situações relacionadas a custos para sua adaptação. Em caso de problemas de saúde da criança e/ou falta de suporte social, pode ser adaptativo reduzir o investimento parental, se esse comportamento motivar os indivíduos da rede social da mãe e do bebê (como o pai da criança e outros familiares) a aumentarem seu investimento. O presente estudo objetivou investigar, sob perspectiva evolucionista, prevalência e fatores de risco para a DPP em mães de baixa renda do distrito do Butantã, em São Paulo. Foram realizadas entrevistas estruturadas em três momentos: terceiro trimestre de gestação; 0-3 dias após o parto; e 2-4 meses após o parto. Participaram da primeira etapa 245 gestantes, usuárias do sistema público de saúde, que responderam a Escala de Apoio Social (EAS), a Escala de Apego Adulto de Colins (EAA) e outras questões estruturadas. Na última etapa, 138 das 245 participantes iniciais responderam a Escala de Depressão Pós-Parto de Edimburgo (EDPE), que avalia a intensidade de sintomas depressivos no puerpério, através de auto-relato. Análises fatoriais indicaram validade satisfatória da EDPE, da EAS e da EAA para a amostra estudada. Adotando-se ponto de corte 11/12 na EDPE, encontrou-se prevalência de DPP de 26,8%. Para verificar os fatores de risco, as mães foram classificadas em três grupos, por percentil, conforme sua pontuação na EDPE: baixa (0-4), média (5-10) e alta (11-29). O grupo de pontuação alta associou-se significativamente a: escolaridade até Ensino Fundamental completo; a mãe ter filhos com parceiros anteriores; número elevado de filhos, de crianças morando na casa e razão elevada entre o número de crianças e de adultos vivendo na casa; histórico prévio de depressão; relatar não desejar a gestação; relatar intercorrências na gestação; relatar baixo nível de afeto e preocupação e elevado nível de rejeição e punição provenientes dos próprios pais durante a infância; avaliar o ambiente familiar que teve na infância como estressante; relatar nível alto de conflito com o pai do bebê; perceber baixo suporte social; e padrões de apego com características de ansiedade nos relacionamentos e dificuldade de contar com a rede de apoio social. Uma Regressão Logística Múltipla resultou em um modelo preditivo para a intensidade dos sintomas depressivos após o parto no qual foram significativas as variáveis: fatores da EAA Ansiedade nos relacionamentos e Dificuldade de contar com a rede de apoio; Fator da EAS Suporte emocional e de informação; e se o pai do bebê estava empregado. A associação encontrada entre percepção de baixo apoio social na gestação e sintomas mais intensos de DPP está de acordo com a teoria evolucionista. Os fatores de risco encontrados podem orientar políticas públicas de prevenção e tratamento da DPP. / Postpartum depression (PPD) is characterized by symptoms, during the puerperium, like sadness, lack of interest and pleasure in activities, irritability, tearfulness, and the sensation of being unable to deal with new situations. In Brazil, studies report prevalences ranging from 13,4% to 37,1% for PPD. An evolutionary hypothesis predicts that the symptoms of PPD could influence the decision of the mother about her parental investment in situations related to costs to her adaptation. In case of childs health problem and/or lack of social support, it could be adaptive for the mother to reduce the parental investment, if this behavior could motivate individuals of the social net (e.g., the babys father and other relatives) to increase their investment. This study aimed to investigate from an evolutionary framework the prevalence and risk factors for PPD in low-income mothers from the Butantã district, in São Paulo. Structured interviews were carried out in three moments: during the third trimester of pregnancy; 0-3 days after delivery; and 2-4 months after delivery. 245 pregnant women who used the Public Health System participated of the first part of the study answering the Social Support Scale (SSS), the Colins Adult Attachment Scale (AAS) and other structured questions. In the last part of the study, 138 of the 245 mothers answered the Edinbourgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS). This scale evaluates the intensity of depressive symptoms during the puerperium using self-report. Factor analyses indicated that the EPDS, the EAS and the EAA had satisfactory reliability. Using the cut-point of 11/12 in the EPDS, the prevalence of PPD was 26.8%. To find out the risk factors, the mothers were classified in three groups according to their scores on the EPDS: low (0-4), medium (5-10) and high (11-29). The high score group was sociated with studying until the end of the primary school; mothers having sons and/or daughters with previous partners; having a great number of sons and/or daughters, a great number of sons and/or daughters living in the home and a large number of adults : number of children living in the home ratio; previous history of depression; reporting not wanting the pregnancy; reporting pregnancy intercurrences; reporting low levels of affect and worry and high levels of rejection and punishment from the parents during childhood; evaluating the familiar environment during childhood as stressful; reporting high level of conflict in the relationship with the babys father; perceiving low social support; and patterns of attachment characterized by anxiety in relationships and difficulty in counting on the social net. A Multiple Logistic Regression resulted in a predictive model to the intensity of the depressive symptoms after delivery. The significant variables were: the factors of AAS Anxiety in relationships and Dificulty in counting on the social net; the factor Emotional and information support of the SSS; and whether the babys father is employed or not. The association between perception of low social support during pregnancy and high levels of PPD symptoms is in accordance with the evolutionary theory. The risk factors found on this research could guide the Public Health Programs in the prevention and treatment of PPD.

A depressão pós-parto (DPP) caracteriza-se por sintomas, no puerpério, como tristeza, falta de interesse ou prazer nas atividades, irritabilidade, choro freqüente e sensação de ser incapaz de lidar com novas situações. No Brasil, foram encontradas prevalências de 13,4% a 37,1% para o transtorno. Uma hipótese evolucionista prevê que os sintomas da DPP poderiam modelar a tomada de decisão da mãe sobre o investimento parental em situações relacionadas a custos para sua adaptação. Em caso de problemas de saúde da criança e/ou falta de suporte social, pode ser adaptativo reduzir o investimento parental, se esse comportamento motivar os indivíduos da rede social da mãe e do bebê (como o pai da criança e outros familiares) a aumentarem seu investimento. O presente estudo objetivou investigar, sob perspectiva evolucionista, prevalência e fatores de risco para a DPP em mães de baixa renda do distrito do Butantã, em São Paulo. Foram realizadas entrevistas estruturadas em três momentos: terceiro trimestre de gestação; 0-3 dias após o parto; e 2-4 meses após o parto. Participaram da primeira etapa 245 gestantes, usuárias do sistema público de saúde, que responderam a Escala de Apoio Social (EAS), a Escala de Apego Adulto de Colins (EAA) e outras questões estruturadas. Na última etapa, 138 das 245 participantes iniciais responderam a Escala de Depressão Pós-Parto de Edimburgo (EDPE), que avalia a intensidade de sintomas depressivos no puerpério, através de auto-relato. Análises fatoriais indicaram validade satisfatória da EDPE, da EAS e da EAA para a amostra estudada. Adotando-se ponto de corte 11/12 na EDPE, encontrou-se prevalência de DPP de 26,8%. Para verificar os fatores de risco, as mães foram classificadas em três grupos, por percentil, conforme sua pontuação na EDPE: baixa (0-4), média (5-10) e alta (11-29). O grupo de pontuação alta associou-se significativamente a: escolaridade até Ensino Fundamental completo; a mãe ter filhos com parceiros anteriores; número elevado de filhos, de crianças morando na casa e razão elevada entre o número de crianças e de adultos vivendo na casa; histórico prévio de depressão; relatar não desejar a gestação; relatar intercorrências na gestação; relatar baixo nível de afeto e preocupação e elevado nível de rejeição e punição provenientes dos próprios pais durante a infância; avaliar o ambiente familiar que teve na infância como estressante; relatar nível alto de conflito com o pai do bebê; perceber baixo suporte social; e padrões de apego com características de ansiedade nos relacionamentos e dificuldade de contar com a rede de apoio social. Uma Regressão Logística Múltipla resultou em um modelo preditivo para a intensidade dos sintomas depressivos após o parto no qual foram significativas as variáveis: fatores da EAA Ansiedade nos relacionamentos e Dificuldade de contar com a rede de apoio; Fator da EAS Suporte emocional e de informação; e se o pai do bebê estava empregado. A associação encontrada entre percepção de baixo apoio social na gestação e sintomas mais intensos de DPP está de acordo com a teoria evolucionista. Os fatores de risco encontrados podem orientar políticas públicas de prevenção e tratamento da DPP. / Postpartum depression (PPD) is characterized by symptoms, during the puerperium, like sadness, lack of interest and pleasure in activities, irritability, tearfulness, and the sensation of being unable to deal with new situations. In Brazil, studies report prevalences ranging from 13,4% to 37,1% for PPD. An evolutionary hypothesis predicts that the symptoms of PPD could influence the decision of the mother about her parental investment in situations related to costs to her adaptation. In case of childs health problem and/or lack of social support, it could be adaptive for the mother to reduce the parental investment, if this behavior could motivate individuals of the social net (e.g., the babys father and other relatives) to increase their investment. This study aimed to investigate from an evolutionary framework the prevalence and risk factors for PPD in low-income mothers from the Butantã district, in São Paulo. Structured interviews were carried out in three moments: during the third trimester of pregnancy; 0-3 days after delivery; and 2-4 months after delivery. 245 pregnant women who used the Public Health System participated of the first part of the study answering the Social Support Scale (SSS), the Colins Adult Attachment Scale (AAS) and other structured questions. In the last part of the study, 138 of the 245 mothers answered the Edinbourgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS). This scale evaluates the intensity of depressive symptoms during the puerperium using self-report. Factor analyses indicated that the EPDS, the EAS and the EAA had satisfactory reliability. Using the cut-point of 11/12 in the EPDS, the prevalence of PPD was 26.8%. To find out the risk factors, the mothers were classified in three groups according to their scores on the EPDS: low (0-4), medium (5-10) and high (11-29). The high score group was sociated with studying until the end of the primary school; mothers having sons and/or daughters with previous partners; having a great number of sons and/or daughters, a great number of sons and/or daughters living in the home and a large number of adults : number of children living in the home ratio; previous history of depression; reporting not wanting the pregnancy; reporting pregnancy intercurrences; reporting low levels of affect and worry and high levels of rejection and punishment from the parents during childhood; evaluating the familiar environment during childhood as stressful; reporting high level of conflict in the relationship with the babys father; perceiving low social support; and patterns of attachment characterized by anxiety in relationships and difficulty in counting on the social net. A Multiple Logistic Regression resulted in a predictive model to the intensity of the depressive symptoms after delivery. The significant variables were: the factors of AAS Anxiety in relationships and Dificulty in counting on the social net; the factor Emotional and information support of the SSS; and whether the babys father is employed or not. The association between perception of low social support during pregnancy and high levels of PPD symptoms is in accordance with the evolutionary theory. The risk factors found on this research could guide the Public Health Programs in the prevention and treatment of PPD.

現代社會中分工愈細，個人無時無刻不是處於團體之中。因此，個人在團體中的表現 便成為重要的課題。團體績效是個十分複雜的現象，個體在團體中，有時表現較個人 時表現佳；但是，有時，個體在團體中表現不若獨處時的表現（如，steiner,1972） 在許多團體現象中，研究者最感關心的是二種現象：一是社會助長（social facilit ation ），一是社會閑散（social loafing）。社會助長是指當有他人在場時，會使 個體產生激起，助長其強勢行為來，如果個體所從事的是簡單的工作，那麼其強勢反 應為正確的行為，所以，在此現象中，團體績效優於個人績效。而社會閑散是指個體 在團體中工作，團體總績效雖大於個人單獨的績效，卻未達團體之潛在績效，也就是 說，個體出現了混水摸魚的現象，使得團體績效不如每位團體成員單獨表現的總和。 所以，在此現象中，團體績效不如個人績效。同樣在團體中，卻出現了二種不同的表 現，因此，研究者欲探討有那些因素可以區別出二種現象，希望能抑制社會閑散的發 生，轉為社會助長現象。 在本研究中，研究者探討工作情境、作業難度、與參與目標決定方式等三因素是否能 區別出上述二種現象，並將社會閑散轉為社會助長，故為3 （工作情境，包括單獨、 團體╱可以辨認、團體╱不能辨認三組）×2 （作業難度，包括較簡單與較困難二組 ）×2 （參與目標決定方式，包括參與目標設定及分配目標二組）的設計，假設為ぇ 單獨組與團體╱可以辨認組相較，有社會助長現象；但單獨組與團體╱不可以辨認組 相較，有社會閑散現象。え即使在團體╱不可以辨認組的情況下，若受試從事較困難 的工作，與單獨組相較，並不會產生社會閑散，而是產生社會助長。ぉ即使在團體╱ 不可以辨認組的情況下，若受試本身參與目標設定，則與單獨組相較的結果，並不會 產生社會閑散，而是產生社會助長。