Le glutamate est accumulé dans des vésicules synaptiques par des transporteurs vésiculaires du glutamate appelés VGLUT1-3. VGLUT1 et VGLUT2 sont utilisés par les neurones glutamatergiques «classiques» corticaux et sous-corticaux. VGLUT3 est présent dans des sous-populations de neurones utilisant d’autres neurotransmetteurs que le glutamate. Dans la cochlée, VGLUT3 permet la transmission glutamatergique entre les cellules ciliées internes et les neurones du nerf auditif. Le travail mené par l’équipe du Pr Puel a permis de découvrir l’implication de VGLUT3 dans une pathologie héréditaire de l’audition chez l’Homme. Une mutation p.A211V du gène codant VGLUT3 humain est responsable d’une surdité progressive à transmission autosomique. Il s’agit de la première mutation d’un VGLUT associé à une pathologie humaine. Mon travail de thèse a consisté à caractériser l’impact de cette mutation sur le SNC d’une lignée de souris exprimant cette mutation. Nous avons observé que cette mutation avait des effets complexes sur VGLUT3. La mutation p.A211V entraine une baisse marquée de l’expression de VGLUT3 dans les terminaisons nerveuses qui semble liée à une dégradation accélérée de VGLUT3. 20% d’expression résiduelle de VGLUT3 suffisent à assurer la majeure partie des fonctions du transporteur. L’activité de VGLUT3 ne semble donc pas être linéairement corrélée à son expression. De plus, la réduction de VGLUT3 au niveau des synapses semble s’accompagner d’une réduction du nombre de vésicules VGLUT3-positives et d’une réduction du nombre de copies de VGLUT3 par vésicule. Dans l’ensemble, mon travail de thèse a permis d’acquérir une meilleure connaissance de la régulation de VGLUT3. / Glutamate is the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the Central Nervous System (CNS) and is accumulated into synaptic vesicles by proton-dependent transporters named VGLUT1-3. VGLUT1 and VGLUT2-positive neurons are respectively found in cortical and subcortical glutamatergic neurons. In contrast, VGLUT3 is localized in a small population of neurons using other neurotransmitter than glutamate i.e.: cholinergic interneurons in the striatum, subpopulation of GABAergic interneurons in the hippocampus and cortex and serotoninergic neurons. Furthermore, VGLUT3 is also expressed by sensory inner hear cells (IHCs).In the cochlea, VGLUT3 accumulates glutamate into synaptic vesicles of the IHCs. A mutation of the gene that encodes VGLUT3 is responsible for a progressive, high-frequency deafness. It is the first mutation of a VGLUT that was demonstrated to be responsible for a human pathology.We investigated the effects of the p.A211V mutation on VGLUT3 in the CNS of a mouse line expressing this mutation. We observed that this mutation had complex effects on VGLUT3. The p.A211V mutation causes a 80% decrease of VGLUT3 in nerve endings. 20% residual expression of VGLUT3 is sufficient to fulfill most part of its functions. Contrary to prevailing views, VGLUT3 global activity is not linearly correlated to VGLUT3 quantity. Futhermore, VGLUT3 reduction seems to be associated with a diminution of VGLUT3-positive vesicles accompanied by an homogenous reduction of VGLUT3 copy number per vesicle.Overall, my thesis allowed to acquire a better understanding of the regulation of VGLUT3. This work will deepen our understanding of the involvement of VGLUTs in various pathologies.

Over the past three decades in cellular neuroscience there has been a shift towards the view of the 'tripartite synapse', where, astrocytes -- as well as the pre-synapse and post-synapse -- are involved in synaptic signalling. The migration of astrocytes to form branched networks in the brain is, therefore, of great interest in understanding brain development and neuronal function. Migration is a complex interplay between cytoskeletal reorganisation and cell mechanical stiffness. In order to improve understanding of this process, correlative measurements of cytoskeletal organisation and mechanical stiffness are required. To investigate astrocyte migration a technique combining atomic force microscopy (AFM) with stimulated emission depletion (STED) microscopy was developed. First a custom STED microscope was developed. To facilitate the design of this system the theoretical performance of a range of STED techniques (cw-STED, time-gated STED, pulsed STED and RESOLFT) were compared, identifying that pulsed STED theoretically has the highest photon efficiency. A pulsed STED microscope, which uses adaptive optics, was then designed, developed and characterised. The microscope was found to achieve resolutions below 50 nm. The STED microscope was combined with a commercial AFM to study live cells. Using the recently developed SiR-actin and SiR-tubulin dyes and AFM probes optimised for live cell mechanical property studies, images of the actin and tubulin cytoskeleton were correlated with AFM topography and mechanical stiffness measurements. It was found that, in astrocytes, actin contributes significantly both to astrocyte stiffness and topography. Investigations of migrating cells showed differences in actin organisation and mechanical stiffness between the basis and leading edge of migration. A further study was performed, investigating the effects of the gap-junction protein connexin30, which is expressed during the early stages of brain development, on migration. This protein was found to inhibit the actin reorganisation and mechanical stiffness changes observed in basal conditions. Overall the combination of mechanosensitive AFM measurements with advanced microscopy, such as super-resolution, on live cells is a promising approach which will enable a range of investigations, for instance when studying cell structural remodeling during brain development or tumorigenesis.

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This research investigates two neighbourhoods around the train and S-train Ny Ellebjerg in South of Valby, which is a part of Copenhagen. The area, which is a post-industrial area, includes several old factory buildings renovated as office- and workspaces. The research aims to investigate the identity transformation in the area and the influence of the recent development plans in the identity. Therefore, the research questions are: How has the place identity of Ny Ellebjerg changed from being industrial to a densely built neighbourhood and what do the plans indicate for the future? How has the development plans and local plans contributed to the place identity transformation of the Ny Ellebjerg area? The thesis will answer these questions with a triangulation between a content analysis on the involved development plans, local plans and municipal plans, and expert interviews as well as walk-along interviews with residents from the area. The findings of the thesis showed that identity of Ny Ellebjerg has changed from being mainly industrial into a city environment inspired by the forms of the industrial constructions, but with a lot of the buildings perceived as very similar to other areas standardized architecture. The plans for the future indicate that it is necessary to plan with more focus on the residents living in the area. The findings of this thesis showed connections between the wish to preserve the area and turn it into a post-modern, post-industrial area with close ties to its past. The aims of the local plan were not realised fully, since the Følager development was only half built and much of the green areas shown in the illustrations was also found to have not been made, due to it not being directly stated in units in the plans.

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Le cerveau est un organe complexe composé de neurones et des cellules non-neuronales. La communication entre les neurones a lieu via les synapses, dont le remodelage morphologique est considéré essentiel pour le traitement et le stockage des informations dans le cerveau des mammifères. Récemment, ce point de vue neuro-centré de la fonction synaptique a évolué, en prenant également en compte les processus gliaux à proximité immédiate de la synapse. Cependant, comme leur structure est bien en deçà de la résolution spatiale de la microscopie optique conventionnelle, les progrès dans les enquêtes dans leur environnement physiologique, le cerveau intact, ont été entravés. En effet, on sait peu sur les variations nanométriques de la morphologie des épines dendritiques et l'interaction avec les processus gliaux, et, finalement, comment elles affectent la transmission synaptique in vivo. Dans cette thèse, nous cherchons à visualiser la dynamique de la nano-morphologie des épines dendritiques et les processus gliaux dans le cortex à tonneaux de souris in vivo. Nous avons donc mis en place l’imagerie super-résolution 2P-STED en temps réel, ce qui permet une haute résolution spatiale et la pénétration profonde des tissus, chez la souris anesthésiée in vivo. Nous montrons que la nano-morphologie des épines est diversifiée, variable, mais globalement stable, et que les différences dans la morphologie des épines peut avoir un effet sur leur compartimentation in vivo. En outre, la mise en œuvre de l’imagerie super-résolution en double couleur in vivo et le développement d'une approche de marquage astrocytaire, nous ont permis de fournir la caractérisation à l'échelle nanométrique des interactions neurone-glie. Ces résultats apportent un aperçu sans précédent dans la dynamique de la synapse à l'échelle nanométrique in vivo, et ouvrent la voie à une meilleure compréhension de la façon dont les réarrangements morphologiques des synapses contribuent à la physiologie du cerveau. / The brain is a complex organ consisting of neurons and non-neuronal cells. Communication between neurons takes place via synapses, whose morphological remodeling is thought to be crucial for information processing and storage in the mammalian brain. Recently, this neuro-centric view of synaptic function has evolved, also taking into account the glial processes in close vicinity of the synapse. However, as their structure is well below the spatial resolution of conventional light microscopy, progress in investigating them in a physiological environment, the intact brain, has been impeded. Indeed, little is known on the nanoscale morphological variations of dendritic spines, the interaction with glial processes, and how these affect synaptic transmission in vivo. Here, we aim to visualize the dynamic nano-morphology of dendritic spines in mouse somatosensory cortex in vivo. We implemented super-resolution 2P-STED time-lapse imaging, which allows for high spatial resolution and deep tissue penetration, in anesthetized mice, and show that the nano-morphology of spines is diverse, variable, but on average stable, and that differences in spine morphology can have an effect on spine biochemical compartmentalization in vivo. Moreover, implementation of dual color in vivo super-resolution imaging and a novel astrocytic labeling approach provided the first steps towards nanoscale characterization of neuron-glia interactions in vivo. These findings bring new insights in synapse dynamics at the nanoscale in vivo, and our methodological endeavors help pave the way for a better understanding of how nanoscale aspects of spine morphology and their dynamics might contribute to brain physiology and animal behavior.