Estruturas aeronáuticas são em sua grande parte fabricadas em material compósito para que sejam atendidas as especificações de projeto. Entre essas estruturas destaca-se a estrutura sanduíche. A utilização desse tipo de estrutura requer estudos extensos em novos materiais, bem como na aplicação dos mesmos. Uma atenção especial para o núcleo dessas estruturas é necessária, pois este material é na verdade uma estrutura celular, como as espumas poliméricas. Esta dissertação busca concatenar a literatura com a prática ao estudar a calibração de modelos de material para descrever o comportamento mecânico de espumas poliméricas, bem como avaliar suas potencialidades e limitações. Estas espumas são estruturas celulares cujos mecanismos de falha consistem em respostas micro e macroscópicas. A identificação e quantificação desses comportamentos podem ser feitas através da investigação de modelos de material micro-mêcanicos ou fenomenológicos (macro-mecânicos) associados a ensaios e análises experimentais tanto do material celular quanto da estrutura na qual este material é utilizado. Cada abordagem, micro ou macro-mecânica, possui vantagens e desvantagens que no presente trabalho são discutidas para o material estudado (espuma polimérica rígida de PVC, poli-cloreto de vinila, com estrutura de células fechada e densidade de 60kg/m³). Uma série de ensaios experimentais com bases em normas é realizada e os dados coletados são comparados com dados obtidos simultaneamente através de uma técnica de correlação de imagens. Todas as informações experimentais são confrontadas e associadas aos mecanismos de falha da espuma polimérica. Finalmente, os dados experimentais são utilizados nas identificações de parâmetros de modelos de material disponíveis em um programa comercial de elementos finitos - ABAQUS. Com os modelos de material calibrados, o presente trabalho investiga a representatividade e as limitações dos mesmos quando aplicados a estruturas aeronáuticas submetidas a cargas localizadas, monotônicas ou não. Observou-se que há uma forte dependência da resposta macroscópica da espuma com sua estrutura celular quando submetida a cargas localizadas e/ou não-monotônicas. Ademais, o uso de modelos de material simplificados, e/ou com hipóteses de implementação, gera resultados duvidosos quando estes modelos são aplicados a materiais celulares com respostas complexas (mecanismos micro-mecânicos, anisotropia, viscosidade, etc.). Todavia, o presente trabalho mostra que uma calibração estratégica relevando as hipóteses de implementação e as limitações do modelo de material, fornece bons resultados macroscópicos que são fortemente influenciados pelos mecanismos de falha micro-mecânicos. / Aircraft structures are mostly made of composite material in order to achieve the specifications of a project. Among these structures one highlights the sandwich structure. The usage of this structure requires extensive studies on new materials as well as on the application of these very materials. A special attention for the cores material of these structures is needed because it is in fact a cellular structure, as the polymeric foams. This dissertation seeks to concatenate the literature and practice, studying the calibration of material models to describe the mechanical behavior of polymeric foams, as well as to analyse their potentials and limitations. These foams are cellular structures whose failure mechanisms comprise micro and macro responses. The identification and quantification of these behaviors can be done through micro-mechanical or phenomenological (macro-mechanical) material models along with experimental tests and analyses of both the cellular material and the structure in which this material is used. Each approach, micro or macro, has advantages and disadvantages that in the present work are discussed for the studied material (PVC, poly-vinyl-chloride, rigid closed-cell polymeric foam with a density of 60kg/m³). A series of experimental tests based on standard procedures are carried out and the data collected are compared with data obtained simultaneously through an image correlation technique. All the experimental information are confronted and associated to the failure mechanisms of the polymeric foam. Finally, the experimental data are used for the identification of material models parameters, currently available in the commercial finite elements software - ABAQUS. With the material models calibrated, the present work investigates the representativeness and the limitations of these very models when applied to aircraft structures submitted to monotonic or not localized loads. One has observed that there is a strong dependence of the foams macroscopic response with its cellular structure when it is submitted to localized and/or non-monotonic loads. Moreover, the usage of simplified material models, and/or with some implementation hypotheses, renders doubtful results when these models are applied to cellular materials with complex responses (micro-mechanical mechanisms, anisotropy, viscosity, etc.). Nevertheless, the present work shows that a strategic calibration taking into account the implementation hypotheses and the limitations of the material model, yields good macroscopic results that are strongly influenced by the micro-mechanical failure mechanisms.

Estruturas aeronáuticas são em sua grande parte fabricadas em material compósito para que sejam atendidas as especificações de projeto. Entre essas estruturas destaca-se a estrutura sanduíche. A utilização desse tipo de estrutura requer estudos extensos em novos materiais, bem como na aplicação dos mesmos. Uma atenção especial para o núcleo dessas estruturas é necessária, pois este material é na verdade uma estrutura celular, como as espumas poliméricas. Esta dissertação busca concatenar a literatura com a prática ao estudar a calibração de modelos de material para descrever o comportamento mecânico de espumas poliméricas, bem como avaliar suas potencialidades e limitações. Estas espumas são estruturas celulares cujos mecanismos de falha consistem em respostas micro e macroscópicas. A identificação e quantificação desses comportamentos podem ser feitas através da investigação de modelos de material micro-mêcanicos ou fenomenológicos (macro-mecânicos) associados a ensaios e análises experimentais tanto do material celular quanto da estrutura na qual este material é utilizado. Cada abordagem, micro ou macro-mecânica, possui vantagens e desvantagens que no presente trabalho são discutidas para o material estudado (espuma polimérica rígida de PVC, poli-cloreto de vinila, com estrutura de células fechada e densidade de 60kg/m³). Uma série de ensaios experimentais com bases em normas é realizada e os dados coletados são comparados com dados obtidos simultaneamente através de uma técnica de correlação de imagens. Todas as informações experimentais são confrontadas e associadas aos mecanismos de falha da espuma polimérica. Finalmente, os dados experimentais são utilizados nas identificações de parâmetros de modelos de material disponíveis em um programa comercial de elementos finitos - ABAQUS. Com os modelos de material calibrados, o presente trabalho investiga a representatividade e as limitações dos mesmos quando aplicados a estruturas aeronáuticas submetidas a cargas localizadas, monotônicas ou não. Observou-se que há uma forte dependência da resposta macroscópica da espuma com sua estrutura celular quando submetida a cargas localizadas e/ou não-monotônicas. Ademais, o uso de modelos de material simplificados, e/ou com hipóteses de implementação, gera resultados duvidosos quando estes modelos são aplicados a materiais celulares com respostas complexas (mecanismos micro-mecânicos, anisotropia, viscosidade, etc.). Todavia, o presente trabalho mostra que uma calibração estratégica relevando as hipóteses de implementação e as limitações do modelo de material, fornece bons resultados macroscópicos que são fortemente influenciados pelos mecanismos de falha micro-mecânicos. / Aircraft structures are mostly made of composite material in order to achieve the specifications of a project. Among these structures one highlights the sandwich structure. The usage of this structure requires extensive studies on new materials as well as on the application of these very materials. A special attention for the cores material of these structures is needed because it is in fact a cellular structure, as the polymeric foams. This dissertation seeks to concatenate the literature and practice, studying the calibration of material models to describe the mechanical behavior of polymeric foams, as well as to analyse their potentials and limitations. These foams are cellular structures whose failure mechanisms comprise micro and macro responses. The identification and quantification of these behaviors can be done through micro-mechanical or phenomenological (macro-mechanical) material models along with experimental tests and analyses of both the cellular material and the structure in which this material is used. Each approach, micro or macro, has advantages and disadvantages that in the present work are discussed for the studied material (PVC, poly-vinyl-chloride, rigid closed-cell polymeric foam with a density of 60kg/m³). A series of experimental tests based on standard procedures are carried out and the data collected are compared with data obtained simultaneously through an image correlation technique. All the experimental information are confronted and associated to the failure mechanisms of the polymeric foam. Finally, the experimental data are used for the identification of material models parameters, currently available in the commercial finite elements software - ABAQUS. With the material models calibrated, the present work investigates the representativeness and the limitations of these very models when applied to aircraft structures submitted to monotonic or not localized loads. One has observed that there is a strong dependence of the foams macroscopic response with its cellular structure when it is submitted to localized and/or non-monotonic loads. Moreover, the usage of simplified material models, and/or with some implementation hypotheses, renders doubtful results when these models are applied to cellular materials with complex responses (micro-mechanical mechanisms, anisotropy, viscosity, etc.). Nevertheless, the present work shows that a strategic calibration taking into account the implementation hypotheses and the limitations of the material model, yields good macroscopic results that are strongly influenced by the micro-mechanical failure mechanisms.

No description available.

Les convertisseurs de forte puissance sont des éléments critiques des futurs réseaux HVDC. À ce titre, leur fiabilité et leur endurance sont primordiales. La défaillance d’un composant se produit soit en circuit ouvert, ou en court-circuit. Le composant défaillant en circuit ouvert est inadmissible pour les convertisseurs utilisant une topologie de mise en série. En particulier, dans certaines applications HVDC, les modules doivent être conçus de telle sorte que lorsqu'une défaillance se produit, le module défaillant doit se comporter comme un court-circuit et supporter ainsi le courant nominal qui le traverse. Un tel comportement est appelé “défaillance en court-circuit” ou “failure-to-short-circuit”. Actuellement, tous les modules de puissance ayant un mode de défaillance en court-circuit disponibles dans le commerce utilisent des semi-conducteurs en silicium. Les potentialités des semi-conducteurs en carbure de silicium (SiC) poussent, aujourd’hui, les industriels et les chercheurs à mener des investigations pour développer des modules Fail-to-short à base des puces SiC. C’est dans ce contexte que se situe ce travail de thèse, visant à concevoir un module à base de puces SiC offrant un mode de défaillance de court-circuit. Pour cela nous présentons d’abord une étude de l’énergie de défaillance des puces SiC, afin de définir les plages d’activation du mécanisme Fail-to-short. Ensuite, nous démontrons la nécessité de remplacer les interconnexions classiques (fils de bonding) par des contacts massifs sur la puce. Enfin, une mise en œuvre est présentée au travers d’un module “demi pont” à deux transistors MOSFET. / The reliability and endurance of high power converters are paramount for future HVDC networks. Generally, module’s failure behavior can be classified as open-circuit failure and short-circuit failure. A module which fails to an open circuit is considered as fatal for applications requiring series connection. Especially, in some HVDC application, modules must be designed such that when a failure occurs, the failed module still able to carry the load current by the formation of a stable short circuit. Such operation is referred to as short circuit failure mode operation. Currently, all commercially available power modules which offer a short circuit failure mode use silicon semiconductors. The benefits of SiC semiconductors prompts today the manufacturers and researchers to carry out investigations to develop power modules with Fail-to-short-circuit capability based on SiC dies. This represents a real challenge to replace silicon power module for high voltage applications in the future. The work presented in this thesis aims to design a SiC power module with failure to short-circuit failure mode capability. The first challenge of the research work is to define the energy leading to the failure of the SiC dies in order to define the activation range of the Fail-to-short mechanism. Then, we demonstrate the need of replacing the conventional interconnections (wire bonds) by massive contacts. Finally, an implementation is presented through a "half bridge" module with two MOSFETs.

Das 1K- und das 2K-Spritzgießverfahren dienen zur Herstellung thermoplastischer Sandwichstrukturen, deren Deck- und Kernschicht aus einer kurzglasfaserverstärkten Polypropylen-Folie sowie entweder kompaktem oder geschäumtem Polypropylen besteht. Zudem erfolgt die Herstellung der Schäume durch das CELLMOULD®-Verfahren mit einem physikalischen Treibmittel. Eine geeignete kurzfaserverstärkte PP-Folie wird aufgrund ihrer mikroskopischen, rheologischen und mechanischen Eigenschaften ausgewählt. Beim Schaumspritzgießen ermittelt die Drei-Wege-ANOVA den Einfluss der Werkzeugtemperatur, der Eingasungsmenge und der Einspritzgeschwindigkeit auf die Dichte sowie die Zelldichte und die Zellgröße der eingespritzten Schäume. Funktional gradierte Sandwichstrukturen lassen sich durch die Mikrostruktur-untersuchung evaluieren. Die mechanischen und spezifischen mechanischen Eigenschaften der eingespritzten Proben werden in der Arbeit durch die Biegeprüfung bestimmt. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass sich faserverstärkte konventionelle PP-Folien mit 30 Gew.-% am besten für die Deckschichten eignen. Beim Schaumspritzgießen beeinflusst lediglich die Werkzeugtemperatur die Zelldichte und die Zellgröße. Funktional gradiertes Material ergibt sich bei der Sandwichstruktur, die durch 1K-Spritzgießen hergestellt wird. Aufgrund des Vorhandenseins einer geschäumten Lage, kompakter Lagen und kurzglasfaserverstärkter Lagen findet die Gradierung sich von der Mitte bis zu den Rändern der Proben statt. Das Vorhandensein von Schaumstrukturen verringert den Biegemodul und die Biegefestigkeit. Die Biegedehnung bei maximaler Biegespannung nimmt signifikant mit den vorhandenen Glasfasern ab. Die Sandwichstrukturen führen lediglich zur Erhöhung des Biegemoduls und der Biegefestigkeit gegenüber kompaktem und geschäumtem PP. Die Biegedehnung bei maximaler Biegespannung verhält sich bei den Sandwichstrukturen umgekehrt zum Biegemodul und der Biegefestigkeit. Beim Vergleich mittels unterschiedlicher Spritzgießverfahren produzierter Sandwichstrukturen haben die durch das 1K-Spritzgießverfahren hergestellten Proben einen niedrigeren Biegemodul und eine geringere Biegefestigkeit als die durch das 2K-Spritzgießverfahren produzierten. Jedoch zeigen die Sandwichstrukturen aus dem 1K-Spritzgießverfahren mit geschäumtem Kern den höheren spezifischen Biegemodul und die höhere spezifische Biegefestigkeit in Y-Richtung im Vergleich zu jenen aus dem 2K-Spritzgießverfahren. Außerdem weisen die verschiedenen Versagensarten der Sandwichstrukturen bei der Biegeprüfung und der Bestimmung der interlaminaren Scherfestigkeit keine Delamination zwischen Deck- und Kernschicht auf. Bei der Berechnung durch den modifizierten Gonzales-Ansatz und die Paralleltheorie zeigt sich, dass der E-Modul der Schäume und der Sandwichstrukturen fast identisch mit jenem aus den Experimenten ist. Allerdings ist die Berechnung der faserverstärkten Proben nicht möglich, daher wird der E-Modul aus den Experimenten verwendet, um die Durchbiegung im Rahmen einer Balkentheorie zu bestimmen. Die nahezu identische Durchbiegung aus dem Experiment und der Berechnung lässt sich auch durch die Euler-Bernoulli-Balkentheorie nachweisen. Die Arbeit zeigt auf, dass die Sprünge in der Steifigkeit und Festigkeit in jeder Lage von 1K-und 2K-spritzgegossenen Sandwichstrukturen abnehmen. Auf diese Weise lässt sich die Vermeidung der Delamination zwischen Deck- und Kernschicht erreichen. Die Dichte und die Materialmenge der Sandwichstrukturen reduzieren sich ohne signifikante Abnahme des spezifischen Biegemoduls und der spezifischen Biegefestigkeit. Mit der Verwendung von mechanischen Eigenschaften von Teilkomponenten der Sandwich-struktur können die Biegeeigenschaften der gradierten Sandwich-strukturen durch eine Berechnung vorausgesagt werden.:1 Einführung 2 Stand der Technik 3 Motivation und Ziel 4 Versuchsdurchführung 5 Ergebnisse und Diskussion 6 Zusammenfassung und Ausblick / The 1-component and 2-component injection moulding processes are employed to produce thermoplastic sandwich structures of which the skin and core layers comprise a short glass fibre-reinforced polypropylene film and either compact or foamed polypropylene, respectively. In addition, the foams are produced using the CELLMOULD® process with a physical blowing agent. A suitable short fibre reinforced PP film is selected on the basis of its microscopic, rheological and mechanical properties. In foam injection moulding, the three-way ANOVA determines the influence of the mould temperature, gas content and injection speed on the density as well as the cell density and cell size of the injected foams. Functionally graded sandwich structures can be proven by using the microstructure investigation. The mechanical properties and specific mechanical properties of the injected samples are determined by the three-point bending test. The results show that fibre-reinforced conventional PP films with 30 wt% are the most suitable for the skin layers. In the case of foam injection moulding, only the mould temperature influences the cell density and cell size of the injected foams. Functionally graded material results from the sandwich structure, which is produced by 1-component injection moulding process, because a foamed layer, compact layers and short glass fibres reinforced layers occur from the middle to the edges of these samples. The presence of foam structures reduces the flexural modulus and the flexural strength. The bending elongation at maximum bending stress decreases significantly with the existing glass fibres. The sandwich structures only increase the flexural modulus and the flexural strength compared to compact and foamed PP. The bending elongation at maximum bending stress behaves in the opposite way in the sandwich structures compared to the flexural module and the flexural strength. When comparing sandwich structures produced using different injection moulding processes, the sandwich structures produced by the 1-component injection moulding process have a lower flexural modulus and a lower flexural strength than those produced by the 2-component injection moulding process. However, the sandwich structures with foamed core from the 1-component injection moulding process show the higher specific flexural modulus and the higher specific flexural strength in Y-direction compared to those in the same direction from the 2-component injection moulding process. In addition, the various types of failure of the sandwich structures during the bending test and the determination of the interlaminar shear strength provide no delamination between the skin and core layers. The calculation suggests that the modulus of elasticity of the foams and the sandwich structures, calculated by the modified Gonzales approach and the parallel theory, respectively, is almost identical to that from the experiments. Nevertheless, the calculation of the fibres-reinforced samples cannot be achieved, hence, the modulus of elasticity of the fibres-reinforced samples from the experiments is used to determine the deflection based on a beam theory. The almost identical deflection from the experiment and the calculation can also be demonstrated by the Euler-Bernoulli beam theory.The work shows that the significant change in rigidity and strength decrease in each layer of 1-component and 2-component injection moulded sandwich structures. Thus, the avoidance of delamination between the skin and core layers can be achieved. The density and the amount of material in the sandwich structures are reduced without a significant decrease in the specific flexural modulus and the specific flexural strength. With the use of mechanical properties of subcomponents of the sandwich structure, the bending properties of the graded sandwich structures can be predicted by a calculation.:1 Einführung 2 Stand der Technik 3 Motivation und Ziel 4 Versuchsdurchführung 5 Ergebnisse und Diskussion 6 Zusammenfassung und Ausblick

Byggbranschens utsläpp av växthusgaser utgör en stor andel av Sveriges totala utsläpp. För att minska de byggrelaterade utsläppen är det på många fronter som byggbranschen behöver förändras och effektiviseras. De senaste åren har en succesiv ökning av byggandet i trä skett vilket är gynnsamt då trä alternativet är mer klimatvänligt än stål och betong. De tuffa klimatmålen vi nu står framför innebär dock att mer behöver göras än att endast öka andelen träbyggnader. Pappersmassaindustrin är lätt att bortse ifrån, då den hittills inte varit relevant för byggbranschen och för att återanvändning är relativt framträdande inom den branschen. Ifrån sågverken som sönderdelar trästockar till virke fraktas flis som blir över till pappersbruk. Av flisen görs sedan bland annat diverse pappförpackningar som går att återvinna. Problemet är att dessa förpackningar endast går att återvinna ett visst antal gånger innan fibrerna blir obrukbara och istället används som biobränsle. Om byggmaterial skulle gå att producera baserat på dessa fibrer, skulle detta innebära en mer långlivad användning av dem. Ett byggmaterial som uppfunnits, gjort på fibrer från pappersmassabruk är core-materialet ”Greenwood”. Eftersom materialet är nytt och egenskaperna till stor del är okända krävs det att diverse studier görs som undersöker materialets olika egenskaper som är relevanta för en eventuell tillämpning inom byggbranschen. Denna studie avser att undersöka skjuvstyvhet, böjstyvhet och bärförmåga hos sandwichelement uppbyggda av core-materialet Greenwood och ytskikt av papp. Detta genom att först  dynamiskt och statiskt testa de ingående materialens egenskaper, följt av böjprovning av nio sandwichbalkar med varierande tjocklek på ytskikten. Samtliga balkar testades även dynamiskt. Core-materialet Greenwood som ingick i sandwichelementen var endast den begränsande faktorn en gång av tio böjprov. När core-materialets skjuvstyvhet togs fram både dynamiskt och statiskt och när den omvandlades till en skjuvmodul visade det sig att Greenwood har en mer än dubbelt så stor styvhet som EPS-cellplast vid liknande densitet. Detta är intressant då denna cellplast ofta agerar som ett core-material i sandwichelement ute i byggbranschen. Testerna visar även på att balkarna har en relativt liten spridning vilket innebär att resultaten har god tillförlitlighet. Slutligen, kan det konstateras att dessa sandwichelement uppvisar sega egenskaper med en viss kvarvarande lastkapacitet även efter brott. Samtliga nämnda egenskaper ovan talar för en viss potential för tillämpning av dessa sandwichelement inom byggbranschen. Fortsatta studier av fukt- och krypegenskaper vid långtidsbelastning rekommenderas, vilket är viktigt för användning inom byggandet. De omfattande resultaten från föreliggande studie utgör dock ett bra underlag för fortsatta undersökningar och värdering av möjliga tillämpningar. / The construction industry`s greenhouse emissions, makes up for a large portion of Sweden’s total emissions. In order to reduce construction related emissions, a fair amount of fronts within the construction industry needs to be changed and streamlined. In the last couple of years, there has been a successive increase in the number of structures that are built from wood amongst other things, which is beneficial because the wood alternative is more climate friendly than steel and concrete. The current tough climate goals entails that more has to be done than just increasing the amount of wood constructions. The pulp industry is easy to write off because so far, it has not been relevant to the construction industry and because recycling is relatively prominent within that industry. From the sawmills that dismember wooden logs to lumber, leftover wood chips are transported to paper mills. Among other things, different cardboard packages that can be recycled are then made from those wood chips. The problem with these packages is that they can only be recycled a certain number of times before the fibers become unusable and instead, are used as biofuel. If building materials were to be able to be produced with these fibers, that would be a more long-lived use of them. A building material, recently invented, made of fiber from paper mills is the core-material “Greenwood”. Because the material is new and its properties for the most part are unknown, this requires that various studies are conducted that examines the different properties the material possesses that are relevant for a contingent enforcement within the construction industry. This study intends to examine the shear rigidity, flexural rigidity and maximum capacity for sandwich panels made from the core-material Greenwood and faces of paperboard. This was achieved by first dynamically and statically test the properties of the two different materials, followed by flexure testing nine sandwich beams with varying face thicknesses. Every beam was also tested dynamically. The core-material Greenwood which was a part of the sandwich panels, was only the limiting factor 1 time out of 10 flexure tests. When the shear rigidity of the core-material was calculated both statically and dynamically and when it was converted to a shear modulus it was shown that Greenwood has a rigidity of more than double that of EPS cellular plastic at similar density. This is interesting because this type of cellular plastic often acts as a core-material in sandwich structures found in the construction industry. The tests also show that the beams have a relatively small spread which means that the results have good reliability. Finally, it can be concluded that these  sandwich panels exhibit ductile properties with a certain lasting load capacity even after ultimate load has been reached. Every property mentioned above indicates that there is a certain potential for applicability of these sandwich panels within the construction industry. Continued studies of moisture properties and creep properties during long-term loading is recommended, which is important for a possible use within construction. The extensive results from this study constitutes a good basis for continued research and assessment of possible applications.