京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(文学) / 甲第20597号 / 文博第746号 / 新制||文||649(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院文学研究科文献文化学専攻 / (主査)教授 横地 優子, 教授 赤松 明彦, 教授 伊藤 和行, 矢野 道雄 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Letters / Kyoto University / DGAM

Language of the Snakes is a biography of Prakrit, one of premodern India’s most important and most neglected literary languages. Prakrit was the language of a literary tradition that flourished roughly from the 1st to the 12th century. During this period, it served as a counterpart to Sanskrit, the preeminent language of literature and learning in India. Together, Sanskrit and Prakrit were the foundation for an enduring “language order” that governed the way that people thought of and used language. Language of the Snakes traces the history of this language order through the historical articulations of Prakrit, which are set out here for the first time: its invention and cultivation among the royal courts of central India around the 1st century, its representation in classical Sanskrit and Prakrit texts, the ways it is made into an object of systematic knowledge, and ultimately its displacement from the language practices of literature. Prakrit is shown to have played a critical role in the establishment of the cultural-political formation now called the “Sanskrit cosmopolis,” as shown through a genealogy of its two key practices, courtly literature (kāvya-) and royal eulogy (praśasti-). It played a similarly critical role in the emergence of vernacular textuality, as it provided a model for language practices that diverged from Sanskrit but nevertheless possessed an identity and regularity of their own. Language of the Snakes thus offers a cultural history of Prakrit in contrast to the natural-history framework of previous studies of the language. It uses Prakrit to formulate a theory of literary language as embedded in an ordered set of cultural practices rather than by contrast to spoken language.

This dissertation concerns the reception of the poet Kalidasa (c. 4th century), one of the central figures in the Sanskrit literary tradition. Since the time he lived and wrote, Kalidasa’s works have provoked many responses of different kinds. I shall examine how three writers contributed to this vast tradition of reception: Kuntaka, a tenth-century rhetorician from Kashmir; Vedantadesika, a South Indian theologian who lived in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries; and Sri Aurobindo, an Indian English writer of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries who started out as an anticolonial activist and later devoted his life to spiritual exercises. While these readers lived well after Kalidasa, they were all deeply invested in his poetry. I wish to understand why Kalidasa’s poetry continued to provoke extended responses in writing long after its composition. It is true that readers often use past literary texts to various ends of their own devising, just as they often fall victim to reading texts anachronistically. In contradistinction to such cases, the examples of reading I examine highlight the role that texts themselves, not just their charisma or the mental habits of their readers, can have in constituting the reading process. They therefore urge us to formulate a more robust understanding of textual reception, and to reconsider the contemporary practice of literary criticism.

A mulher brähmaëa (sacerdotisa) na Índia antiga é o um dos agentes principais e intermediários entre os homens e os deuses; sendo imprescindível aos rituais (sacrifícios de fogo solenes e públicos). Nas interações entre os humanos, as mulheres de todas as camadas da sociedade são privilegiadas como agentes dos ritos da hospitalidade, ou seja, da permuta da dádiva. Além disso, a mulher é o foco da maioria dos ritos de passagem, visto que estes são realizados antes do nascimento, durante a gestação, o que envolve, assim, a mãe diretamente. Ao mesmo tempo, a mulher relativiza o ideal ritual e social, variando a norma, de acordo com as circunstâncias e as escolhas pessoais. O objetivo dessa dissertação é discorrer sobre quais papéis rituais e sociais são delegados às mulheres na sociedade da Índia antiga. Para tanto, selecionamos, apresentamos e comentamos os ritos em que haja a inserção das mulheres, descrevendo suas funções, seus deveres e direitos, sua posição culturalmente estabelecida e a relações entre o âmbito ritual e a sociedade por extensão a partir das literaturas de cunho rituais e jurídico-religiosas, divididas em duas grandes categorias, de acordo com a tradição; quais sejam: Çruti e Småti, isto é, o ouvido e o lembrado. Nesse exercício analítico de cunho histórico-religioso, tentamos dar conta do nosso problema principal: qual o lugar da mulher na Índia antiga ritual e, por conseguinte, socialmente, conforme representada na literatura sânscrita. / The brähmaëa woman (priestess) in Ancient India is the main and intermediate agent between men and gods; being indispensable in rituals (fire sacrifices, both public and solemn). In the interactions between men, women of all social divisions are privileged as the agents of hospitality rites, i.e., in the exchange of gifts. Moreover, women are the object of most life-cycle rites, since they are performed before birth, during pregnancy, which involves the mother directly. Besides, women adapt the ideals of social and ritual actions, varying the norms, according to circumstances, and personal choices. The objective of this dissertation is to depict the ritual and social roles which are assigned to women in the society of Ancient India as they are culturally thought and created. In order to do so, we selected, presented and commented about the rites in which women are included, describing their functions, duties and rights; observing their socially and culturally established position in relation to the ritual and social realms, in the terms presented by the ritual and religious/law literature, divided in two major categories in the Indian tradition: Çruti e Småti, i.e., what has been heard and what is recalled. In this religious-historical attempt of analysis, we aim to answer, or at least, to point at and think over, the main problem we acknowledge: what is womens domain in Ancient India when it comes to ritual and social ideals as represented in the Sanskrit Literature.

Esta tese tem como objeto de estudo as antologias da literatura sânscrita conhecidas como Puräëa e tem como objetivo observá-las como uma unidade enunciativa, relacionado-as aos elementos históricos e sociais com os quais essas obras conviveram durante seu longo período de compilação, que se estende aproximadamente do século III d.C. até por volta do século XV d.C. Para tal fim, adotaram-se como linhas teóricas a Semiótica greimasiana, as contribuições dos escritos atribuídos a Mikhail Bakhtin e predominantemente a Análise do Discurso de linha francesa, cuja perspectiva permite investigar o universo de relações existentes entre construção lingüística e elementos sócio-culturais. Os relatos míticos detacam-se como tema privilegiado por esta pesquisa, visto que concentram, em suas narrativas, as interações e negociações culturais que participaram do processo de consolidação das práticas sociais hinduístas, das quais a recitação dos Puräëa faz parte. E, uma vez que os Puräëa consistem em antologias, a presença de determinados episódios míticos revela pressupostos culturais que possibilitam identificar o diálogo existente entre os vários estratos sociais que interagiram na formação do hinduísmo. Observa-se, ademais, o papel que essa literatura desempenhou em meio às outras literaturas de seu cenário cultural, examinando-se seu estatuto de escritura sagrada a partir do conceito de discurso constituinte, o que leva ao panorama das relações interdiscursivas dos enunciados purânicos com outras vertentes da cultura sânscrita, a saber, a tradição védica e o movimento cultural do tantrismo. Exemplifica-se, por fim, o conjunto das reflexões expostas na tese com o hino conhecido como Devé-mähätmya, composto antes do século VII d.C. e transmitido junto à antologia chamada Märkaëòeya. A mitologia da Grande Deusa é vista como um expoente das relações históricas vivenciadas durante o período em que ocorreram a compilação das antologias purânicas e a consolidação do hinduísmo. / The object of research of this thesis is the collection of anthologies known as Puräëa in Sanskrit Literature and its purpose is to survey them as an enunciative unity. This is done by relating the individual works to historical and social elements with which they coexisted during the long period of their compilation, which spreads approximately from III B.C.E to XV C.E. With this purpose in mind we assume as theoretical bases Greimasian Semiotics, the works attributed to Mikhail Bakhtin and mainly French Discourse Analysis, whose perspective allows one to investigate the whole of relations existing between verbal constructions and socio-cultural elements. The mythical narratives stand out as a significant subject of this research inasmuch as they condense in speech form the cultural interactions and negotiations that were in act in the process of consolidation of Hindu social practices, among which the recitation of the Puräëa took part. And since the Puräëa works are anthologies, the occurrence of some mythical accounts can disclose cultural presuppositions that allow us to recognize the existing dialogue between several social strata intervening in the shaping of Hinduism. Furthermore, we observe the role performed by Puräëa literature in the midst of other literatures sharing the same cultural environment by the examination of its status of sacred scripture through the concept of Self-Constituting discourse. That approach leads us to an overview of the interdiscoursive relations of Puräëa enunciates with other trends of Sanskrit culture, namely, the Vedic tradition and Tantrism as a cultural movement. At last, our ideas are exemplified by the analysis of the hymn known as Devémähätmya, composed before VII B.C.E and handed down along with the anthology called Märkaëòeya. The mythology of the Great Goddess it presents is seen as an exponent of the historical relations that took place during the time the Puräëa anthologies were compiled and Hinduism was consolidated.

Esta tese tem como objeto de estudo as antologias da literatura sânscrita conhecidas como Puräëa e tem como objetivo observá-las como uma unidade enunciativa, relacionado-as aos elementos históricos e sociais com os quais essas obras conviveram durante seu longo período de compilação, que se estende aproximadamente do século III d.C. até por volta do século XV d.C. Para tal fim, adotaram-se como linhas teóricas a Semiótica greimasiana, as contribuições dos escritos atribuídos a Mikhail Bakhtin e predominantemente a Análise do Discurso de linha francesa, cuja perspectiva permite investigar o universo de relações existentes entre construção lingüística e elementos sócio-culturais. Os relatos míticos detacam-se como tema privilegiado por esta pesquisa, visto que concentram, em suas narrativas, as interações e negociações culturais que participaram do processo de consolidação das práticas sociais hinduístas, das quais a recitação dos Puräëa faz parte. E, uma vez que os Puräëa consistem em antologias, a presença de determinados episódios míticos revela pressupostos culturais que possibilitam identificar o diálogo existente entre os vários estratos sociais que interagiram na formação do hinduísmo. Observa-se, ademais, o papel que essa literatura desempenhou em meio às outras literaturas de seu cenário cultural, examinando-se seu estatuto de escritura sagrada a partir do conceito de discurso constituinte, o que leva ao panorama das relações interdiscursivas dos enunciados purânicos com outras vertentes da cultura sânscrita, a saber, a tradição védica e o movimento cultural do tantrismo. Exemplifica-se, por fim, o conjunto das reflexões expostas na tese com o hino conhecido como Devé-mähätmya, composto antes do século VII d.C. e transmitido junto à antologia chamada Märkaëòeya. A mitologia da Grande Deusa é vista como um expoente das relações históricas vivenciadas durante o período em que ocorreram a compilação das antologias purânicas e a consolidação do hinduísmo. / The object of research of this thesis is the collection of anthologies known as Puräëa in Sanskrit Literature and its purpose is to survey them as an enunciative unity. This is done by relating the individual works to historical and social elements with which they coexisted during the long period of their compilation, which spreads approximately from III B.C.E to XV C.E. With this purpose in mind we assume as theoretical bases Greimasian Semiotics, the works attributed to Mikhail Bakhtin and mainly French Discourse Analysis, whose perspective allows one to investigate the whole of relations existing between verbal constructions and socio-cultural elements. The mythical narratives stand out as a significant subject of this research inasmuch as they condense in speech form the cultural interactions and negotiations that were in act in the process of consolidation of Hindu social practices, among which the recitation of the Puräëa took part. And since the Puräëa works are anthologies, the occurrence of some mythical accounts can disclose cultural presuppositions that allow us to recognize the existing dialogue between several social strata intervening in the shaping of Hinduism. Furthermore, we observe the role performed by Puräëa literature in the midst of other literatures sharing the same cultural environment by the examination of its status of sacred scripture through the concept of Self-Constituting discourse. That approach leads us to an overview of the interdiscoursive relations of Puräëa enunciates with other trends of Sanskrit culture, namely, the Vedic tradition and Tantrism as a cultural movement. At last, our ideas are exemplified by the analysis of the hymn known as Devémähätmya, composed before VII B.C.E and handed down along with the anthology called Märkaëòeya. The mythology of the Great Goddess it presents is seen as an exponent of the historical relations that took place during the time the Puräëa anthologies were compiled and Hinduism was consolidated.

India has complex and sophisticated oral tradition which ha s developed over millennia. The Sanskrit language has had an enormous influence over the whole of India, especially its oral tradition. The advent of the literate tradition in India which began approximately five thousand years ago preserved (in writing) much of the oral style elements. In chapter I of this dissertation the influence of the Sanskrit language and its oral transmission to various parts of the globe are briefly traced. Marcel Jousse, in the early part of this century, developed theories involving the anthropological basis governing human expression. These are rooted in mimism, bilateralism and formulism. Chapter 2 of this dissertation briefly outlines the principles of Jousse's theories and provides a brief overview of orality - literacy studies. The views of other experts in the field like Parry, Lord, Finnegan and Ong are also discussed. The Bhagavadgita (the chosen text) is a popular religious text among Indians. Its style encapsulates the oral style elements of Sanskrit literature. A brief summary of the first six discourses which cover the philosophy of Karma Yoga are provided in Chapter 3. Selected slokas (couplets) of these discourses are used as a basis to discuss certain formulaic techniques like a dialogue within a dialogue, application of the Parry-Lord theory, use of imagery (including simile, comparison and metaphor), use of honorific names and the significance of numbers as mnemotechnical devices. All these are elements of oral style. The discussion of the philosophy of Bhakti Yoga (Yoga of Devotion) takes up the next six discourses (discourses 7-12) of the Bhagavadg1ta. Chapter 4 provides a brief summary of these discourses. The elements of oral style which are i dentified and discussed among slokas (couplets) in these discourses are the propositional geste, parallelism, key words in a recitation and contextual meaning. The final chapter (chapter 5) deals with the philosophy of Jnana Yoga (Yoga of Knowledge). The slokas (couplets) of the next six discourses (13 - 18) which cover this philosophy are used as a basis to identify and discuss the nine characteristics of oral style as described by Ong, borrowing from other sources, alliteration and assonance which are further elements of the oral style. This dissertation concludes that the oral formulaic style has played a significant role in preserving the uniqueness, freshness and originality of the Bhagavadgita. / Thesis (M.A.)-University of Natal, Durban, 1995.

A mulher brähmaëa (sacerdotisa) na Índia antiga é o um dos agentes principais e intermediários entre os homens e os deuses; sendo imprescindível aos rituais (sacrifícios de fogo solenes e públicos). Nas interações entre os humanos, as mulheres de todas as camadas da sociedade são privilegiadas como agentes dos ritos da hospitalidade, ou seja, da permuta da dádiva. Além disso, a mulher é o foco da maioria dos ritos de passagem, visto que estes são realizados antes do nascimento, durante a gestação, o que envolve, assim, a mãe diretamente. Ao mesmo tempo, a mulher relativiza o ideal ritual e social, variando a norma, de acordo com as circunstâncias e as escolhas pessoais. O objetivo dessa dissertação é discorrer sobre quais papéis rituais e sociais são delegados às mulheres na sociedade da Índia antiga. Para tanto, selecionamos, apresentamos e comentamos os ritos em que haja a inserção das mulheres, descrevendo suas funções, seus deveres e direitos, sua posição culturalmente estabelecida e a relações entre o âmbito ritual e a sociedade por extensão a partir das literaturas de cunho rituais e jurídico-religiosas, divididas em duas grandes categorias, de acordo com a tradição; quais sejam: Çruti e Småti, isto é, o ouvido e o lembrado. Nesse exercício analítico de cunho histórico-religioso, tentamos dar conta do nosso problema principal: qual o lugar da mulher na Índia antiga ritual e, por conseguinte, socialmente, conforme representada na literatura sânscrita. / The brähmaëa woman (priestess) in Ancient India is the main and intermediate agent between men and gods; being indispensable in rituals (fire sacrifices, both public and solemn). In the interactions between men, women of all social divisions are privileged as the agents of hospitality rites, i.e., in the exchange of gifts. Moreover, women are the object of most life-cycle rites, since they are performed before birth, during pregnancy, which involves the mother directly. Besides, women adapt the ideals of social and ritual actions, varying the norms, according to circumstances, and personal choices. The objective of this dissertation is to depict the ritual and social roles which are assigned to women in the society of Ancient India as they are culturally thought and created. In order to do so, we selected, presented and commented about the rites in which women are included, describing their functions, duties and rights; observing their socially and culturally established position in relation to the ritual and social realms, in the terms presented by the ritual and religious/law literature, divided in two major categories in the Indian tradition: Çruti e Småti, i.e., what has been heard and what is recalled. In this religious-historical attempt of analysis, we aim to answer, or at least, to point at and think over, the main problem we acknowledge: what is womens domain in Ancient India when it comes to ritual and social ideals as represented in the Sanskrit Literature.

This thesis examines Ratnakarasanti's (ca. 970-1045 C.E.) explication of Prajnaparamita in his doxographical works and his Saratama. Based on extant Sanskrit and Tibetan primary sources, it argues that Ratnakarasanti's main teacher was Dharmakirtisri (late 10th C.E.) and that Ratnakarasanti's Saratama sought to replace his teacher's Yogacara-Madhyamika framework with a causal explanation of Prajnaparamita through redefining the term Prajnaparamita as the path to awakening, rather than its goal. By unpacking that causal explanation in light of his broader system, the thesis demonstrates the way that Ratnakarasanti's own version of Nirakaravadin-Yogacara-Madhyamika refutes cognitive images (akara) as unreal ultimately, but claims they are still perceived by buddhas out of compassion. This conclusion debunks the long-standing theory that Ratnakarasanti was an Indian proponent of the controversial Tibetan gZhan-stong despite later gZhan-stong propon-ents' attempts to claim him as their own. There are two parts to the study. The first part introduces Ratnakarasanti's life, philosophy and doxography based upon evidence from a Tibetan colophon to his Madhyamika commentary and the Tibetan hagiography of his student Adhisa (a.k.a. Atisa) and upon a comparative analysis of his doxographical works that are prerequisites for reading his Saratama. The second part consists of an annotated translation of the Saratama's introductory section, contrasted with the prior standard interpretation by Haribhadra's (9th century C.E.). In the two appendices are included a Tibetan critical edition and a separate hybrid Sanskrit and Tibetan critical edition of the Saratama's first parivarta based on the extant 11th and 13th century incomplete MSS and on the Tibetan translations in the sDe dge, Peking and sNarthang editions. The hybrid edition also includes my provisional critical edition of the root text - i.e. the first parivarta of the Aryasta - sahasrikaprajnaparamitasutra - and my own translation of two small sample sections of the Saratama, which are extant only in Tibetan, back into Sanskrit.

Cette thèse propose une étude sur l’Abhinayadarpaṇa, « le Miroir du Geste », de Nandikeśvara, traité sanskrit médiéval traitant de l’art de l’expression au moyen des gestes. Ce texte est aujourd’hui une référence théorique particulièrement populaire dans la pratique du bharatanāṭyam, la danse « classique » du Tamil-Nadu (Sud-Est de l’Inde), notamment depuis le tournant dit « revivaliste » dans les années 1930. Conjuguant les approches philologique et ethnographique, cette étude propose une analyse des différentes formes et modes d’appropriation de ce texte. L’étude et la traduction du texte sanskrit, l’analyse des phénomènes d’intertextualité avec d’autres traités sanskrits et des différentes « éditions-traductions » anglaises, ainsi que la présentation de l’usage actuel de ce texte par les praticiens de bharatanāṭyam (d’après les données d’un terrain d’un an à Chennai et à Pondichéry, trois séjours de 2013 à 2016) permettront, d’une part, d’appréhender le caractère polymorphe et dynamique de ce traité dont les formes reflètent les pratiques autant qu’elles les normalisent, et, d’autre part, de dégager une pratique du texte, de l’Inde ancienne à l’Inde actuelle, prenant la forme de commentaires discursifs et gestuels. / This study focuses on Nandikeśvara’s Abhinayadarpaṇa, « The Mirror of Gesture », a medieval Sanskrit treatise about the art of gestural expression. Today this text is a very popular theoretical reference in the bharatanāṭyam milieu, the classical dance of Tamil Nadu (South-East India), since the so-called 1930s revivalism. Through philological and ethnographic approaches, this study aims at analysing the various forms and ways of appropriation of this text. The study and translation of the Sanskrit text, the analysis of intertextuality with other Sanskrit treatises and of various English « edition-translations », and the study of the contemporary use of the text by bharatanāṭyam practitioners (using original data from one year of fieldwork in Chennai and Pondicherry, 2013 to 2016) will make it possible, on the one hand, to explore the polymorphic and dynamic aspects of this treatise, whose forms both reflect and normalise practices - and, on the other hand, to distinguish a text-practice, from Ancient India to the present day, which takes the shape of a discursive and gestural commentaries.