Paper One: An opportunity sample from three primary schools participated, split between two age categories with 37 children from year groups three and four (mean age of 8 years) and 48 from year groups five and six (mean age of 9 years 11 months). Children’s perspectives of self-talk were explored through focus groups that were transcribed and then studied through thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Additional quantitative data was generated from the children’s self-reported experiences of self-talk, which they also rated along constructs relating to positivity. A sample of the children’s self-talk statements that were judged to be self-evaluative, were additionally rated by an opportunity sample of four adult participants to allow a comparison between adult and child perspectives. In line with previous research, themes arose concerning children’s perspectives of the role of self-talk in enabling them to negotiate cognitive and social situations. New themes arose including the children’s concerns about the privacy of their thoughts and the prominence of self-evaluative forms of self-talk. More similarities than differences were found between the two age ranges and there was considerable overlap between adult and child ratings of the evaluative self-talk statements. The implications of these findings and suggestions for future research are discussed, including links to Paper Two of this study. Paper Two: This is a feasibility study. An opportunity sample of 79 children, aged between seven and eleven years old (mean age of 9 years 7 months), took part in a series of six group intervention sessions run by the researcher. These aimed to encourage self-talk that is self-compassionate, using elements of compassion focused approaches (Gilbert, 2009). A mixed methods design led to analysis of qualitative data from post-intervention group interviews using thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Quantitative data comprised the children’s pre-intervention and post-intervention responses to three questionnaires seeking to explore wellbeing, behaviour and self-compassion. Several key themes were identified, including the children’s ability to engage with the concepts of self-talk, self-kindness and the three system model of emotions (Gilbert, 2009). The concept of self-compassion itself was found to have some aspects that were harder for the children to comprehend. There were no significant differences between the children’s responses on the pre-intervention and post-intervention questionnaires, however, there were interesting qualitative responses concerning the use of these. The implications of these findings will be discussed with consideration to current educational psychologist practice and the need for future research.

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Studiens syfte var att undersöka hur vardagsgolfare använder sig av stödjande psykologiska prestationstekniker vid en golfrunda och tävling. I studien deltog tolv vardagsgolfare, sex män och sex kvinnor, i åldrarna 24-82 år (M=50.33, SD=17.19). Deltagarna i den aktuella studien spelade golf minst två gånger i veckan under säsong. Studiens data framkom genom en semistrukturerad intervjuguide, därefter analyserades datan via en innehållsanalys. Resultatet visade tydliga bidrag kring intervjudeltagarnas användning av stödjande psykologiska prestationstekniker vid en golfrunda och tävling. Majoriteten av vardagsgolfarna använde prestationstekniker vid utmanande situationer såsom puttning eller driverslag. Emellertid visade det att de omedvetet använde och kombinerade stödjande psykologiska prestationstekniker eftersom de inte kunde förstå hur deras prestation påverkades av sitt inre. Deltagarna besatt inte tillräcklig förståelse för teknikernas vikt, betydelse eller funktion när de uppfattade en effekt i sitt golfspel och kunde därmed inte förklara utfallet. Studier har visat att idrottare på lägre nivå har en förmåga att använda tekniker på samma sätt som elitidrottare, både fysiska och psykiska. På samma sätt uppvisade intervjudeltagarna tendens kring liknande användning som tidigare forskning visar hos elitidrottare. Vidare implikationer av prestationsteknikerna kan resultera till att deltagarna mer framgångsrikt får användning för teknikernas helhet. Framtida forskning rekommenderas att studera hur vardagsgolfare påverkar sitt spel under en längre tid när de medvetet använder stödjande psykologiska prestationstekniker. / The aim of the study was to investigate how everyday golfers’ use supportive psychological performance techniques in a round of golf and competition. Twelve everyday golfers participated in the study, six men and six women, aged 24-82 years old (M=50.33, SD=17.19). The participants in the current study played golf at least twice a week during the season. The study data emerged through a semi-structured interview guide, then the data was analyzed via a content analysis. The results showed clear contributions about the interview participants’ use of supportive psychological performance techniques in a round of golf and competition. The majority of the everyday golfers used performance techniques in challenging situations such as putting or using the driver. However, it showed that they unknowingly used and combined supportive psychological performance techniques because they could not understand how their performance was affected by their inner being. The participants did not possess a sufficient understanding of the importance, significance or function of the techniques when they perceived an effect in their golf game and thus could not explain the outcome. Studies have shown that athletes on lower levels have the ability to use techniques in the same way as elite athletes, both physically and mentally. In the same way, the interviewees showed a tendency towards similar use as elite athletes. Further implications of the performance techniques may result that the participants use the entirety of the techniques more successfully. Future research recommends studying how everyday golfers affect their game for a long time when they consciously use supportive psychological performance techniques.

Introduction: The study of self-talk and its influence on sport performance is extensive. Lately, the study of pressure performance within a regulatory fit framework has gained momentum. However, little research has investigated the influence regulatory fit may have on performance and, more precisely, how the use of self-talk with such framework may have on performance under pressure. Objective: To examine whether female football players with self-talk training within a regulatory fit framework produce better performances in a passing football task when under perceived pressure compared to a control group. Methods: In a pre– post-test, independent group study design, 33 female football players (M = 19.52, SD = 2.82 years) completed a passing drill carried out in two separate conditions, that is under no pressure and under pressure. Participants also completed a series of psychological measures that are relevant in the study of the performance–pressure relationship (i.e., affect, anxiety, self-confidence, and mental effort). Results: Performance under pressure was protected from deterioration in the experimental group. The experimental group also showed lower levels of negative emotions and higher self-confidence. Conclusion: Findings suggests that self-talk within a regulatory fit framework improves footballing performance under pressure and could be considered as a self-talk strategy beneficial to performance under pressure. / Introduktion: Studerandet av self-talk och dess inverkan på sportprestationer är omfattande. På senare tid, har studerandet av prestation under press inom ett regulatory fit ramverk tagit fart. Dock har begränsat med forskning undersökt inverkan regulatory fit kan ha på prestation och mer exakt, hur användandet av self-talk med ett sådant ramverk kan ha på prestation under press. Syfte: Att undersöka om kvinnliga fotbollsspelare med self-talk träning inom ett regulatory fit ramverk producerar bättre prestationer i en passningsövning under upplevd press jämfört med en kontrollgrupp. Metod: I en för- och eftertest, oberoende gruppstudiedesign genomförde 33 kvinnliga fotbollsspelare (M = 19.52, SD = 2.82 år) en passningsövning under två separata förhållanden, det vill säga under ingen press och under press. Deltagarna genomförde också en rad psykologiska mätningar som är relevanta i studerandet av relationen prestation-press (d.v.s. affekt, ångest, självförtroende och mental ansträngning). Resultat: Prestation under press skyddades från försämring i experimentgruppen. Experimentgruppen visade också lägre nivåer av negativa känslor och högre självförtroende. Slutsats: Resultaten tyder på att self-talk inom ett regulatory fit ramverk förbättrar fotbollsprestation under press och kan betraktas som en self-talk strategi som är fördelaktig för prestation under press.

Recent research suggests that psychological techniques may facilitate injured athletes' rehabilitation, yet little is known about the psychological techniques trainers currently employ and how they view these interventions. In this study, 206 athletic trainers assigned Likert scale ratings to 11 psychological techniques indicating how much they valued a specific technique, how skillfully they employed it, and how often they utilized it. Trainers also responded to an open ended question asking how they would deal with the psychological aspects of an injury described in a short scenario. Results revealed a tentative model for the way trainers view psychological techniques. Categories of techniques included techniques involving the modification of physical and psychological states (goal setting, pain management, relaxation, imagery, and breathing techniques), techniques involving verbal cognitive techniques (communicating openly, changing negative self talk, emotional counseling, and crisis counseling), and non-recommended techniques (encouraging heroism and screening negative information). The study explored trainers' perceptions of each of the 11 psychological techniques in depth and discussed these findings. The study found that although trainers highly value psychological interventions in their work with injured athletes, they assigned low ratings to the techniques they knew little about. However, as exposure to sport psychology information increased, ratings assigned to the techniques that modify physical and psychological states also increased. Similarly, the longer trainers had worked in their field, the more highly they valued the verbal cognitive interventions. In contrast, neither exposure to sport psychology information or athletic training experience proved predictive of ratings assigned to the non-recommended psychological techniques. These findings suggest the importance of introducing skills training for psychological techniques early in the athletic trainers' educational curriculum so that trainers can gain awareness of the efficacy of certain psychological techniques and skill at using these techniques. Moreover, trainers could benefit from course work explaining potential negative consequences of employing harmful or ineffectual psychological interventions.

O objetivo deste estudo foi investigar os efeitos da autofala na aprendizagem motora. A tarefa utilizada foi o forehand do tênis de campo. Oitenta e quatro universitários foram divididos em cinco grupos experimentais e um controle (n = 14). Dentre os grupos experimentais um deles utilizou-se de quatro dicas para direcionamento da atenção a elementos-chave da rebatida, os demais fizeram uso de apenas uma das quatro dicas (bola, quique, bater, pronto), já o grupo controle recebeu somente instruções gerais fornecidas a todos os participantes. Na fase de aquisição todos os grupos realizaram 180 rebatidas divididas em 60 por dia. Em seguida, eles realizaram um teste de transferência contendo 10 rebatidas com mudança da direção do outro alvo e, após 5 dias, um teste de retenção contendo 10 rebatidas nas mesmas condições da fase de aquisição. A variável dependente foi o acerto ao alvo localizado na quadra adversária. Os resultados mostraram que todos os grupos melhoraram os desempenhos na fase de aquisição, os quais foram mantidos nos testes de transferência e retenção. Entretanto, não foram encontradas diferenças entre os grupos. Concluiu-se que as aprendizagens do forehand com e sem a autofala apresentaram efeitos similares. E, ainda, que a autofala sobre quatro aspectos da tarefa foi similar àquelas com autofala de apenas um aspecto / The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of self-talk on the motor learning. The task was the forehand of the tennis. Eighty-four students were divided into five experimental groups and one control group (n = 14). One of the experimental groups used four cues for directing attention to key elements of forehand. The other groups have made use of only one of the four cues (ball, bounce, hit, ready), and the control group received only general instructions. In the acquisition phase all groups performed 180 trials which were divided into 60 per day. Then they performed a transfer test of 10 trials involving a shift in the target direction and, after 5 days a retention test was run with ten trials in the same conditions of the acquisition phase. The dependent variable was the hit to the target located in the opponent\'s court. The results showed that all groups improved their performances in the acquisition phase, which were kept in the retention and transfer tests. However, no differences were found between groups. It was concluded that the learning of the forehand with and without self-talk showed similar effects. And, that self-talk of four aspects of the task was similar to those with self-talk of only one aspect

O objetivo deste estudo foi investigar os efeitos da autofala na aprendizagem motora. A tarefa utilizada foi o forehand do tênis de campo. Oitenta e quatro universitários foram divididos em cinco grupos experimentais e um controle (n = 14). Dentre os grupos experimentais um deles utilizou-se de quatro dicas para direcionamento da atenção a elementos-chave da rebatida, os demais fizeram uso de apenas uma das quatro dicas (bola, quique, bater, pronto), já o grupo controle recebeu somente instruções gerais fornecidas a todos os participantes. Na fase de aquisição todos os grupos realizaram 180 rebatidas divididas em 60 por dia. Em seguida, eles realizaram um teste de transferência contendo 10 rebatidas com mudança da direção do outro alvo e, após 5 dias, um teste de retenção contendo 10 rebatidas nas mesmas condições da fase de aquisição. A variável dependente foi o acerto ao alvo localizado na quadra adversária. Os resultados mostraram que todos os grupos melhoraram os desempenhos na fase de aquisição, os quais foram mantidos nos testes de transferência e retenção. Entretanto, não foram encontradas diferenças entre os grupos. Concluiu-se que as aprendizagens do forehand com e sem a autofala apresentaram efeitos similares. E, ainda, que a autofala sobre quatro aspectos da tarefa foi similar àquelas com autofala de apenas um aspecto / The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of self-talk on the motor learning. The task was the forehand of the tennis. Eighty-four students were divided into five experimental groups and one control group (n = 14). One of the experimental groups used four cues for directing attention to key elements of forehand. The other groups have made use of only one of the four cues (ball, bounce, hit, ready), and the control group received only general instructions. In the acquisition phase all groups performed 180 trials which were divided into 60 per day. Then they performed a transfer test of 10 trials involving a shift in the target direction and, after 5 days a retention test was run with ten trials in the same conditions of the acquisition phase. The dependent variable was the hit to the target located in the opponent\'s court. The results showed that all groups improved their performances in the acquisition phase, which were kept in the retention and transfer tests. However, no differences were found between groups. It was concluded that the learning of the forehand with and without self-talk showed similar effects. And, that self-talk of four aspects of the task was similar to those with self-talk of only one aspect

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a competition routine intervention on youth swimmers’ competition anxiety, confidence and performance. Participants of this study were youth swimmers (n = 4; female) between the ages of 12-16. Through the use of a multiple-baseline, single-subject design, participants received a competition routine intervention involving imagery, positive self-talk and a relaxation deep-breathing technique. Mixed methods were used, with participants completing the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory for Children questionnaire prior to their swim race and a reflective questionnaire following their swim race. Participants also took part in a follow-up interview upon completing the study. Participants showed no considerable decrease in cognitive and somatic anxiety, or increase in self-confidence or performance following the intervention. However, reflective questionnaire and interview results showed that participants perceived a positive improvement in all of these areas and found the intervention beneficial.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a competition routine intervention on youth swimmers’ competition anxiety, confidence and performance. Participants of this study were youth swimmers (n = 4; female) between the ages of 12-16. Through the use of a multiple-baseline, single-subject design, participants received a competition routine intervention involving imagery, positive self-talk and a relaxation deep-breathing technique. Mixed methods were used, with participants completing the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory for Children questionnaire prior to their swim race and a reflective questionnaire following their swim race. Participants also took part in a follow-up interview upon completing the study. Participants showed no considerable decrease in cognitive and somatic anxiety, or increase in self-confidence or performance following the intervention. However, reflective questionnaire and interview results showed that participants perceived a positive improvement in all of these areas and found the intervention beneficial.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Ohio State University, 2007. / Title from first page of PDF file. Includes bibliographical references (p. 96-106).