Sepse, a resposta do organismo a uma infecção, está associada a altas taxas de mortalidade. A razão pela qual um mecanismo protetor resulta num quadro clínico fatal permanece inexplicada. Em trabalho prévio nosso grupo demonstrou que exossomos de origem plaquetária são os mais freqüentes em plasma de pacientes com choque séptico e que estes podem induzir apoptose em células musculares lisas vasculares e células endoteliais em cultura. Demonstramos ainda que tais exossomos possuíam uma fonte enzimática de ROS, uma NADPH oxidase cuja atividade poderia estar associada à indução da apoptose (Janiszewski et al., 2004). No presente trabalho, nós buscamos criar um modelo de geração ex vivo de exossomos similares aos encontrados em pacientes sépticos e identificar possíveis vias responsáveis pela liberação destes e seus efeitos. Choque séptico é uma condição relacionada com exposição a lipopolissacarídeo (LPS) e geração de alta quantidade de trombina, TNF e espécies reativas de nitrogênio. Através de citometria de fluxo revelamos que plaquetas humanas expostas ao doador de NO dietilamina-NONOato e ao LPS geraram exossomos similares àqueles encontrados em pacientes com choque séptico, expondo alta quantidade de tetraspaninas CD9, CD63 e CD81 mas pouca fosfatidilserina. Por outro lado, plaquetas expostas à trombina ou TNF liberaram partículas com características claramente distintas, com alta exposição de fosfatidilserina e baixa de tetraspaninas. Assim como os exossomos sépticos, os exossomos obtidos pela exposição de NO e LPS geraram radical superóxido e NO, como demonstrado pela quimioluminescência da lucigenina (5M) e celenterazinina (5M) e pela fluorescência da 4,5-diaminofluoresceína (10mM) e 2,7-diclorofluoresceína (10mM). A análise por Western Blot nos permitiu identificar as subunidades Nox1, Nox2 e p22phox da NADPH oxidase e a isoforma induzível da enzima NO sintase (NOS) nesses exossomos. Como esperado, inibidores da NOS e da NADPH oxidase reduziram significamente os sinais fluorescentes e quimioluminescentes. Em adição, as células endoteliais em cultura expostas aos exossomos gerados por dietilamina-NONOato e LPS sofreram significativo aumento da taxa de apoptose quando comparadas àquelas expostas a exossomos controle. A inibição da NADPH oxidase assim como da NOS reduziu expressivamente tal efeito. Adição de urato (1mM), mostrou efeito aditivo sobre a inibição do sinal fluorescente, assim como redução adicional da taxa apoptótica, sugerindo papel importante do radical peroxinitrito. Nós propomos, assim, que exossomos derivados de plaquetas podem representar papel adicional no já complexo cenário da sinalização vascular redox. Nesse sentido, uma abordagem baseada em exossomos pode fornecer novas ferramentas para o entendimento e até tratamento da disfunção vascular na sepse / Sepsis, the bodys response to infection, is associated with high mortality rates. Why a protective mechanism turns into a deadly clinical picture is a matter of debate, and goes largely unexplained. In previous work we demonstrated that plateled derived exosomes are found in the plasma of septic patients with septic shock and can induce endothelial and vascular smooth muscle cell apoptosis in culture through an enzymatic superoxide source (Janiszewski et al., 2004). In this work we sought to create a model for ex vivo generation of exosomes, and to identify the pathways responsible for ROS release by exosomes and their effects. Septic shock is a condition related to exposure of lipopolysaccharide (LPS), generation of high amounts of thrombin, TNF and nitrogen reactive species. Through flow cytometry we demonstrated that human platelets exposed to the NO-donor diethylamine-NONOate, and to LPS, generated exosomes similar to those found in the blood of septic shock patients, with high exposure of the tetraspanin CD9, CD63, and CD81, but little phosphatidylserine. On the other hand, platelets exposed to thrombin or TNF released particles with clearly distinct characteristics, such as high phosphatidylserine and low tetraspanin. Like the septic exosomes, the exosomes obtained by NO and LPS exposure generated superoxide radical and NO, as disclosed by lucigenin and coelenterazine chemiluminescence and by 4,5-diaminofluorescein and 2,7-dichlorofluorescein fluorescence. Western Blot analysis revealed the presence of Nox1, Nox2 and p22phox NADPH oxidase subunits and the inducible isoform of NO synthase (NOS) in these exosomes. As expected, NOS inhibitors or NADPH oxidase inhibitors significantly reduced the fluorescence and chemiluminescente signals. In addition, endothelial cells exposed to NO or LPS generated exosomes underwent apoptotic death, while control exosomes had no effects on apoptosis. NADPH oxidase as well as NOS inhibition significantly reduced apoptosis rates. Concomitant generation of NO and superoxide suggests biological effects of the highly reactive radical peroxynitrite. In fact, the peroxynitrite scavenger urate (1 mM) showed an additive effect on fluorescent signal inhibition, as well as on endothelial apoptosis rate reduction. We thus propose that platelet-derived exosomes may be another class of actors in the complex play known as vascular redox signaling. In this sense, an exosome-based approach can provide novel tools for further understanding and even treating vascular dysfunction related to sepsis

O complexo distrofina-glicoproteínas associadas (DGC) localiza-se no sarcolema das células musculares esqueléticas e cardíacas e tem como função principal proporcionar ligação mecânica entre o citoesqueleto intracelular e a matriz extracelular. Estudos prévios realizados em nosso laboratório, focalizando o complexo DGC, demonstraram perda de proteínas importantes desse complexo. As situações avaliadas anteriormente foram: infecção experimental por Trypanosoma cruzi (T. cruzi) e sépsis experimental. Em ambas as situações verificou-se a perda da distrofina acompanhada por disfunção contrátil e aumento nos níveis da calpaína, protease dependente de cálcio implicada na proteólise da distrofina. Todavia, o mecanismo responsável pela ativação das calpaínas e proteólise da distrofina na infecção experimental por T. cruzi e na sépsis experimental não está totalmente definido. O objetivo desse trabalho foi avaliar in vitro o mecanismo responsável pela ativação das calpaínas nas culturas de cardiomiócitos desafiadas com o soro dos animais infectados experimentalmente com T. cruzi ou com o soro dos animais submetidos à sépsis grave experimental. Camundongos C57BL/6 foram submetidos à sépsis grave ou infectados com a cepa Y de T. cruzi. No pico de expressão das citocinas pró-inflamatórias, 12 dias após inoculação do parasito ou 6 horas após a indução da sépsis, o sangue foi coletado e o soro separado. Corações de camundongos recém-nascidos foram isolados para o cultivo dos cardiomiócitos. No quinto dia após o início das culturas, as células foram estimuladas com 10% do soro de animais infectados com T. cruzi ou o soro de animais submetidos à sépsis grave durante 24 horas. Após, as células foram coletadas para análises de Western blotting e imunofluorescência para verificar a expressão da distrofina e calpaína-1. Avaliou-se também, por imunofluorescência, a expressão do NF-B. Os cardiomiócitos foram estimulados e tratados com o dantrolene, inibidor da liberação de cálcio do retículo sarcoplasmático, ou ALLN, inibidor da calpaína-1, e após coletados para verificar a expressão da distrofina e calpaína-1 por Western blotting e imunofluorescência. Nossos resultados mostraram uma redução significativa na expressão da distrofina com desarranjo das miofibrilas contráteis e formação de bolhas citoplasmáticas, além de um aumento nos níveis da calpaína-1 e do NF-B. O tratamento com dantrolene nas culturas estimuladas com o soro de animais infectados experimentalmente com T. cruzi ou com o soro dos animais submetidos à sépsis grave, recuperou a expressão da distrofina e reduziu os níveis da calpaína-1. O tratamento com ALLN nos cardiomiócitos estimulados com o soro de animais infectados experimentalmente com T. cruzi recuperou a expressão da distrofina e não alterou os níveis da calpaína-1. Nas culturas estimuladas com o soro dos animais submetidos à sépsis grave, o tratamento com o ALLN recuperou a expressão da distrofina e reduziu os níveis da calpaína-1. Nossos resultados demonstraram que citocinas pró-inflamatórias presentes no soro dos animais infectados experimentalmente com T. cruzi como também no soro dos animais submetidos à sépsis grave induziriam um aumento no influxo de cálcio com consequente ativação das calpaínas, as quais atuariam na ativação do NF-B e na degradação da distrofina. Esse mecanismo poderia ser responsável pela proteólise da distrofina cardíaca observada na infecção experimental por Trypanosoma cruzi como também sépsis experimental. Mais estudos são necessários para elucidar este mecanismo, principalmente em relação a inibidores dos canais de cálcio, das citocinas pró-inflamatórias e das calpaínas, com o objetivo de fornecer novas vias de intervenção na prevenção de alterações cardíacas observadas na doença de Chagas e na sépsis. / The dystrophin-glycoprotein complex (DGC), located in the sarcolemma of cardiac and skeletal muscle cells and concentrated along the plasma membrane in costameric structures provides a framework that connects the intracellular cytoskeleton to the extracellular matrix. Previous studies from our laboratory clearly demonstrated disruption of DGC proteins in experimentally-induced T. cruzi infection and experimental sepsis. Both situation presented dystrophin disruption associated with contractile dysfunction and increased calpain levels, calcium dependent protease responsible for dystrophin proteolysis. However, the mechanism responsible for calpain activation and dystrophin proteolysis in experimentally-induced T. cruzi infection and experimental sepsis is not totally understood. The aim of this study was to evaluate in vitro the mechanism responsible for calpain activation in cultured cardiomyocytes challenged with serum from animals experimentally infected with T. cruzi or subjected to severe sepsis. Mice C57BL/6 were subjected to sepsis induction or infected with Y strain from T. cruzi. At the peak of proinflammatory cytokines expression, 12 days after parasite inoculation or 6 hours after sepsis induction, the blood was collected and the serum separated. Hearts from newborn mice were isolated for culture of cardiomyocytes. After 5 days of incubation, the cardiac cells were stimulated with 10% of serum from animals experimentally infected with T. cruzi or subjected to severe sepsis during 24 hours, and collected for Western blotting and immunofluorescence analysis to verify dystrophin and calpain-1 expression. The expression of NF-B was evaluated by immunofluorescence. The treatments with dantrolene, inhibitor of calcium release from sarcoplasmic reticulum, or ALLN, calpain-1 inhibitor, were performed in cultured cardiomyocytes stimulated during 24 hours with serum from animals infected with T. cruzi or subjected to severe sepsis, and dystrophin and calpain-1 expression were analyzed by Western blotting and immunofluorescence. Our results demonstrated loss of dystrophin associated with myofibers derangement and presence of cytoplasmic blebs as well increase of calpain-1 and NF-B expression. The dantrolene treatment in cultures stimulated with serum from animals infected with T. cruzi or subjected to severe sepsis recovey dystrophin expression and reduced calpain-1 levels. The ALLN treatment in cardiomyocytes stimulated with serum from animals infected with T. cruzi recovery dystrophin expression and preserved calpain-1 levels. In cultures stimulated with serum from animals subjected to severe sepsis, the ALLN treatment recovery dystrophin expression and decreased calpain-1 levels. Our results demonstrated that proinflammatory cytokines in serum from mice infected with T. cruzi or subjected to severe sepsis could induce an increase calcium influx with calpain activation, which could act in NF-B activation and dystrophin disruption. Possibly, this mechanism could be responsible to dystrophin proteolysis observed in experimentally-induced acute T. cruzi infection and experimental sepsis. More studies are needed to elucidate this mechanism, especially in relation to calcium channel blockers and inhibitors of pro-inflammatory cytokines and calpains, which may provide new routes for intervention to prevent cardiac damage in Chagas disease and sepsis.

Introdução: Gestações múltiplas apresentam alta morbidade relacionada a fatores como prematuridade, baixo peso ao nascer e sepse. Em gemelares, a aquisição de imunidade passiva por meio do cordão umbilical e do colostro ainda não é bem conhecida. O objetivo geral do estudo foi descrever a concentração de IgG total e específico anti-Streptococcus B, antilipopolissacarídeos de Klebsiella pneumoniae e antilipopolissacarídeos de Pseudomonas aeruginosa no cordão umbilical de recém-nascidos gemelares e a concentração de IgA secretora total e específica destes anticorpos no colostro. O objetivo específico foi analisar a associação entre infecção neonatal e concentração dos anticorpos no sangue de cordão umbilical e no colostro. Métodos: estudo prospectivo transversal de uma coorte de recémnascidos gemelares internados no Centro Neonatal do Instituto da Criança do Hospital das Clínicas da FMUSP no período de 20 meses. Foram excluídos: recém-nascidos com malformação; mães com infecção ou imunodeficiência. Variáveis analisadas: idade gestacional; peso de nascimento; classificação gestacional; concentrações de IgG total e específicos e IgA total e específicas anti-Streptococcus B, antilipopolissacarídeos de Klebsiella pneumoniae e antilipopolissacarídeos de Pseudomonas aeruginosa no sangue de cordão umbilical e no colostro; nutrição enteral; episódios de infecção; desfecho. As dosagens de IgG total foram realizadas por nefelometria e dos demais anticorpos através de ensaio imunoenzimático. Os testes t-Student pareado ou teste de Wilcoxon pareado, teste de Mann-Whitney e teste de Kruskal-Wallis, foram utilizados, considerando-se significante p< 0,005. Resultados: Foram incluídos 57 pares de gêmeos, compondo a casuística de 114 recém-nascidos. A idade gestacional foi 36±1,65 semanas (média±DP) e o peso de nascimento foi 2.304,8 ± 460g (média±DP). As concentrações de anticorpos encontradas foram (média±DP): IgG total 835,71 ± 190,73 mg/dL, IgG anti-Streptococcus B 295,1 ± 250,66 UA/mL, IgG antilipopolissacarídeos de Pseudomonas aeruginosa 280,04 ± 498,66 UA/mL e IgG antilipopolissacarídeos de Klebsiella pneumoniae 504,75 ± 933,93 UA/mL; IgA total 210,2 ± 285,3 g/L, IgA anti-Streptococcus B 6640 ± 9526,8 UA/mL, IgA antilipopolissacarídeos de Pseudomonas aeruginosa 3231,0 ± 2935,2 UA/mL, IgA antilipopolissacarídeos de Klebsiella pneumoniae 3070,1±2886,6 UA/mL. A concentração de IgG total foi menor nos recém-nascidos prematuros (p < 0,001). Em gemelares com idade gestacional < 34 semanas a concentração de IgG total (p=0,013) e IgG antilipopolissacarídeos de Pseudomonas aeruginosa (p=0,032) foi menor. A concentração de anticorpos IgG antilipopolissacarídeos de Klebsiella pneumoniae foi menor nos recém-nascidos pequenos para a idade gestacional (p=0,013). No colostro, houve detecção de IgA total, IgA anti-Streptococcus B, IgA antilipopolissacarídeos de Klebsiella pneumoniae e antilipopolissacarídeos de Pseudomonas aeruginosa em 98,1% das mães. A concentração de IgA antilipopolissacarídeos de Pseudomonas aeruginosa foi menor no colostro das mães de recém-nascidos prematuros (p=0,013). A concentração de IgA antilipopolissacarídeos de Klebsiella pneumoniae foi menor no colostro das mães com parto antes de 34 semanas (p=0,001). Houve infecção em cinco recém-nascidos, cuja concentração de IgG total foi menor (p<0,05). Os neonatos que receberam colostro apresentaram menor incidência de infecção (p < 0,001). Conclusões: Os anticorpos IgG total e específicos foram detectados no sangue do cordão umbilical em todos os gemelares, comprovando sua passagem transplacentária. Houve diminuição significativa na concentração de anticorpos IgG total nos gemelares prematuros e de IgG total e IgG antilipopolissacarídeos de Pseudomonas aeruginosa nos gemelares com idade gestacional inferior a 34 semanas. No colostro houve detecção de IgA total e específica em 98,1% das mães. A concentração de IgA anti-lipopolissacarídeos de Pseudomonas aeruginosa foi menor no colostro das mães de gemelares prematuros. Nas mães com parto antes de 34 semanas houve diminuição da concentração de IgA antilipopolissacarídeos de Klebsiella pneumoniae, sugerindo que a prematuridade possa ter influenciado a transferência de anticorpos maternos pelo colostro. A maior incidência de infecção no grupo de recém-nascidos, que não receberam colostro e naqueles que apresentavam concentração sérica de IgG total significativamente menor, reforça a importância da proteção anti-infecciosa conferida pela imunidade passiva transferida da mãe / Introduction: Multiple pregnancies have high morbidity related to factors such as prematurity, low birth weight and sepsis. In twins, acquisition of passive immunity through the umbilical cord and colostrum is not yet known. The overall aim of the study was to describe the concentration of total and specific IgG antibodies anti-Streptococcus B, anti-lipopolysaccharide of Klebsiella pneumoniae and anti-lipopolysaccharide of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in the umbilical cord of newborn twins and the concentration of total and specific secretory IgA antibodies in the colostrum. The specific aim was to analyze the association between neonatal infection and antibody concentration in the umbilical cord blood and colostrum. Methods: A prospective cross-sectional study of a cohort of newborn twins admitted to the Neonatal Center of Children\'s Institute, University of São Paulo during the period of 20 months. Patients with malformations and mothers with infection or immunodeficiency were excluded from our analysis. Variables analyzed: gestational age; birth weight; sex; gestational classification; antibody concentrations of total and specific IgG and IgA anti-Streptococcus B, anti-lipopolysaccharide of Klebsiella pneumoniae and antilipopolysaccharide of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in umbilical cord blood and colostrum; enteral nutrition; infection episodes; outcome. Total IgG measurements were performed using nephelometry and the specific antibodies were evaluated by enzyme immunoassay. We used paired Student t test or Wilcoxon test, Mann-Whitney test and Kruskal-Wallis test considering significant p < 0.005. Results: During the study period a total of 57 pairs of twins were included, making the sample of 114 newborns. Gestational age was 36 ± 1.65 weeks (mean±SD) and birth weight was 2304.8 ± 460g (mean±SD). We found the following antibody concentrations (mean±SD): total IgG 835.71 ± 190.73 mg/dL, anti-Streptococcus B IgG 250.66 ± 295.1 AU/mL, anti-lipopolysaccharide of Pseudomonas aeruginosa IgG 280.04 ± 498.66 AU/mL and anti-lipopolysaccharide of Klebsiella pneumoniae IgG 504.75±933.93 AU/mL; total IgA 210.2 ± 285.3 g/L, anti- Streptococcus B IgA 6640±9526.8 AU/mL, anti-lipopolysaccharide of Pseudomonas aeruginosa IgA 3231.0±2935.2 AU/mL, antilipopolysaccharide Klebsiella pneumoniae IgA 3070.1±2886.6 AU/mL. The concentration of total IgG was lower in preterm infants (p < 0.001). In twins with gestational age < 34 weeks both total IgG concentration (p = 0.013) and anti-lipopolysaccharide of Pseudomonas aeruginosa IgG concentration (p = 0.032) were lower. The concentration of anti-lipopolysaccharide of Klebsiella pneumoniae IgG was lower in small for gestational age newborns (p=0,013). There was detection of total IgA and specific antibodies in the colostrum of 98.1% mothers. The concentration of anti-lipopolysaccharide of Pseudomonas aeruginosa IgA was lower in the colostrum of premature\'s mothers (p = 0.013). The concentration of anti-lipopolysaccharide of Klebsiella pneumoniae IgA was lower in the colostrum of mothers with delivery before 34 weeks (p = 0.001). Five newborns were diagnosed with sepsis and in this group the concentration of total IgG was lower (p < 0.05). Neonates receiving colostrum had a lower incidence of infection (p < 0.001). Conclusion: This study showed detection of total and specific IgG antibodies in umbilical cord blood for all twin newborn, proving its transplacental passage. There was a significant decrease in the concentration of total IgG antibodies in premature twins and antilipopolysaccharide of Pseudomonas aeruginosa IgG in twins with gestational age less than 34 weeks. There was detection of total and specific IgA in the colostrum of 98.1% mothers. The concentration of anti-lipopolysaccharide of Pseudomonas aeruginosa IgA was lower in mothers of premature twins. Among the newborns with gestational age less than 34 weeks there was a decrease in the concentration of anti-lipopolysaccharide Klebsiella pneumoniae IgA, suggesting that prematurity may have influenced the transfer of maternal antibodies through colostrum. The highest incidence of infection in the newborn group who did not receive colostrum and in those who had significantly lower total IgG serum antibodies reinforces the importance of anti-infectious protection afforded by passive immunity transferred from the mother

Introdução: Sepse é uma síndrome complexa definida por resposta inflamatória sistêmica, de origem infecciosa e caracterizada por manifestações múltiplas que podem determinar disfunção ou falência de um ou mais órgãos ou sistemas. É a principal causa de morte em unidades de terapia intensiva em pacientes críticos e tem representado uma fonte constante de preocupação para os sistemas de saúde em todo o mundo, devido, principalmente, às taxas elevadas de morbimortalidade. O tratamento da sepse é um desafio e continua a ser uma tarefa difícil devido a inúmeros fatores interferentes. Um estudo do nosso grupo demonstrou que a Escherichia coli (E. coli) é capaz de se ligar CD16 de um modo independente de opsonina, levando a um aumento na resposta inflamatória e a inibição da sua própria fagocitose, por conseguinte, procurou-se identificar os peptídeos no proteoma da E. coli envolvidos neste cenário. Metodologia: Utilizando a metodologia de Phage Display, que consiste numa técnica de clonagem, que permite a expressão de diversas sequências de peptídeos na superfície de bacteriófagos, nós identificamos 2 peptídeos que obtiveram interação com CD16. Após a seleção dos peptídeos identificamos uma proteína de membrana de E.coli que possui alta similaridade com um de nossos peptídeos selecionados. Nós acreditamos que esta proteína de membrana possa estar envolvida no processo de evasão imune desenvolvida pela E.coli e parece ser um forte candidato como uma nova opção terapêutica para controlar infecções por E. coli. Conclusão: A identificação de proteínas capazes de induzir inibição de fagocitose, através do receptor CD16, pode ser usada como uma nova forma de tratamento da sepse, assim como explorada no tratamento de doenças autoimunes / Introduction: Sepsis is a complex syndrome defined by a systemic inflammatory response of infectious origin and characterized by multiple manifestations that can determine dysfunction/failure of one or more organs and systems. It is the leading cause of death in intensive care units and represents a major health problem around the world, mainly due to its high mortality and morbidity rates. The treatment of sepsis is challenging and remains a difficult task due to numerous interfering factors. A study from our group demonstrated that Escherichia coli (E. coli) is able to bind CD16 in an opsoninindependent manner, leading to an increase in the inflammatory response and inhibition of its own phagocytosis, therefore we sought to identify the peptides in the E. coli proteome involved in this scenario. Methods and Results: Using the Phage Display technique, which is a cloning technique that allows the expression of various peptide sequences on the surface of bacteriophages (phages) and selecting these on the basis of affinity for a target molecule, we identified two peptides that interact with CD16. Next, using bioinformatic tools, we found an E. coli membrane protein that has high similarity with one of our selected peptides. We believe this membrane protein is involved in the process of immune evasion developed by E. coli and it is a strong candidate as a new therapeutic option to control E. coli infections. Conclusion: The identification of proteins capable of inducing inhibition of phagocytosis through the CD16 receptor, can be used as a new treatment of sepsis, as well as exploited in the treatment of autoimmune diseases

<p>Patients with peritonitis or malignant obstructive jaundice (HPB⁺) have an increased morbidity and mortality due to sepsis. An altered cell-mediated immunity in the intestinal mucosa might promote gut barrier failure, increased endotoxin and cytokine release and bacterial translocation (BT) in these conditions. A clinically relevant rat model of polymicrobial peritonitis induced sepsis by cecal ligation and puncture (CLP) was used. Septic animals demonstrated a superficial injury in the small intestinal mucosa, and a significant reduction in T lymphocytes in the villi, as well as increased number of macrophages in the villi and in the MLNs as compared to sham. CLP caused increased concentration of TNF-α and IL-6 in ascitic fluid. CLP + the immunomodulator Linomide decreased the TNF-α level, reduced mucosal damage and attenuated the changes in T lymphocytes and macrophages observed following CLP. CLP + selective cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 inhibitor (SC-236) or nonselective COX inhibitor (indometacin) decreased the amount of macrophages in the mucosa and the MLNs compared to untreated CLP. CLP + indometacin decreased T lymphocytes in the villi and MLNs. SC-236 + CLP reduced mucosal injury and cytokine release as compared to indometacin. An increased rate of apoptosis in both the mucosa and MLNs was seen following CLP; COX inhibitors enhanced this phenomenon in the MLNs.</p><p>BT occurred infrequently in patients with acute peritonitis and in HPB⁺ there was no evidence of BT. Peritonitis and HPB⁺causes significant inflammatory cellular reactions as increased endotoxin and cytokine plasma levels and an altered immune cell distribution in MLNs, in HPB⁺a high rate of apoptosis in MLNs was observed. </p><p>An altered pattern of immunocompetent cells within the mucosa and in MLNs was found in experimental and clinical peritonitis as in HPB⁺.Lymphocyte depletion may be a result of increased apoptosis, which could reduce the ability of septic or jaundice patients to eradicate infection.</p>

Patients with peritonitis or malignant obstructive jaundice (HPB+) have an increased morbidity and mortality due to sepsis. An altered cell-mediated immunity in the intestinal mucosa might promote gut barrier failure, increased endotoxin and cytokine release and bacterial translocation (BT) in these conditions. A clinically relevant rat model of polymicrobial peritonitis induced sepsis by cecal ligation and puncture (CLP) was used. Septic animals demonstrated a superficial injury in the small intestinal mucosa, and a significant reduction in T lymphocytes in the villi, as well as increased number of macrophages in the villi and in the MLNs as compared to sham. CLP caused increased concentration of TNF-α and IL-6 in ascitic fluid. CLP + the immunomodulator Linomide decreased the TNF-α level, reduced mucosal damage and attenuated the changes in T lymphocytes and macrophages observed following CLP. CLP + selective cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 inhibitor (SC-236) or nonselective COX inhibitor (indometacin) decreased the amount of macrophages in the mucosa and the MLNs compared to untreated CLP. CLP + indometacin decreased T lymphocytes in the villi and MLNs. SC-236 + CLP reduced mucosal injury and cytokine release as compared to indometacin. An increased rate of apoptosis in both the mucosa and MLNs was seen following CLP; COX inhibitors enhanced this phenomenon in the MLNs. BT occurred infrequently in patients with acute peritonitis and in HPB+ there was no evidence of BT. Peritonitis and HPB+ causes significant inflammatory cellular reactions as increased endotoxin and cytokine plasma levels and an altered immune cell distribution in MLNs, in HPB+ a high rate of apoptosis in MLNs was observed. An altered pattern of immunocompetent cells within the mucosa and in MLNs was found in experimental and clinical peritonitis as in HPB+. Lymphocyte depletion may be a result of increased apoptosis, which could reduce the ability of septic or jaundice patients to eradicate infection.

Endotoxin or Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is the invariant structural component of gram negative bacterial outer membranes and is the chief causative factor of Sepsis or endotoxic shock. Sepsis is a syndrome that has very high mortality rates even in this age of excellent therapeutics and critical patient care. The treatment for sepsis till date remains nonspecific and supportive due to lack of effective anti-endotoxic drugs. Sepsis is initiated when the circulating bacteria shed LPS from their cell envelopes. Shed LPS aggregates are recognized by LPS binding proteins and receptors, which activate the host's immune system. Uncontrolled and excessive stimulation of the host's immune system precipitates endotoxic shock which in advanced cases involving multiple system organ failure inevitably lead to patient's death. Many strategies have been tested out to combat this deadly affliction. One of the attractive clinical modalities in sepsis treatment is the use of peptides as LPS sequestering anti-endotoxic drugs. A classical peptide antibiotic of this class is Polymyxin B (PMB) a cyclic cationic acylated molecule, that recognizes LPS with a very high affinity. This thesis describes kinetics and thermodynamics of PMB-LPS interactions and applies these parameters over a framework of different models so as to gain insights into the structure-function relationships that govern the interactions of this peptide with endotoxin(s). Classical biophysical techniques like fluorescence, circular dichroism spectroscopy, stopped flow kinetics, titration calorirnetry (ITC) and the relatively new technique of Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) have been employed to dissect out the mechanism of the range of non-covalent forces that are involved in peptide-endotoxin recognition. Certain proteins that exhibit LPS binding activity have also been studied to gains insight about their mode of action. Implications of these studies for designing peptides that have better anti-endotoxic properties are also highlighted. The first chapter introduces and highlights the clinical features of sepsis. It also attempts to shed light on the LPS mediated signal transduction pathway that leads to endotoxic shock. This chapter also briefly explains the roles of many LPS receptors that are present in the human system and their specific roles in the signal transduction pathways. The second part of this chapter deals with the role of cationic peptides as anti-endotoxic drugs. Certain key functional aspects of these peptides, which impart in them, the desirable property of LPS recognition have also been discussed The second chapter describes the kinetic studies undertaken to unravel the exact mechanism of LPS-PMB interaction. The studies reveal that PMB recognizes LPS in a biphasic manner, with the second, unimolecular isomerization step of the reaction being the rate-limiting step. The initial reaction is shown to be influenced by the presence of salt in the reaction medium. The dissociation phase of this interaction also shows a biphasic pattern. These data allow us to speculate upon the exact mechanism by which PMB is able to recognize LPS. The studies also shed light on some structural aspects that govern and confer such high LPS binding activity to PMB. Based on these a model has been proposed to explain this recognition (C.J. Thomas et al, 1998). The second chapter discuses the mode of action of various PMB analogs. These analogs have been chosen in terms of their mode of action as well as their structural similarly to PMB. The affinities of these analogs to LPS and lipid A were quantified using the Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) method. SPR, a technique that relies on the quantification of change in mass during a binary binding process occurring between an immobilized entity and a flowing ligand, is a rapid and sensitive method to measure biologically relevant interactions. SPR studies provide us with the binding constants and thermodynamic parameters that allow evaluation of the affinities of these peptides towards LPS (C.J.Thomas and A.Surolia, 1999). The third chapter discusses a hitherto unknown mode by which PMB acts on a LPS lamellae. The results of this study wherein the binding affinities of PMB and its analogs were performed on monolayers and tethered liposomes, show that PMB is able to remove specifically LPS or lipid A from monolayers or bilayer assemblies such as tethered liposomes. The exact mode of action of PMB is deciphered in the light of these new studies, which allow us to posit on the observed efficacy of PMB in neutralizing the endotoxin as compared to peptides with nearly similar affinities for LPS (C.J Thomas et al 1999). In the fourth chapter a series of 23 residue peptides, based on the sequence corresponding to the anti-sense strand of magainin gene have been synthesized. Magainin an amphiphilic helical peptide obtained from frog skins plays a vital role in the innate immune defense mechanisms of these organisms. It also exhibits LPS binding activity that makes it an attractive target as an anti-endotoxic drug. Biochemical and biophysical characterization of these peptides reveal that they have the tendency to perturb both the inner and the outer membranes of E.coli. The peptides are amphiphilic and have helical structure in a membrane bound environment. Three of the peptides tested have high affinities for lipid A that approach the values shown by PMB. The kinetic parameters obtained by stopped flow and SPR studies in conjunction with the therrnodynamic parameters obtained using ITC studies allow us to highlight the key structural features that need to be exhibited by peptides that are designed to be LPS recognizers. The studies also project the fact that ionic forces play an important role in the initial recognition of LPS by these peptides. Fortification of the might of these ionic charges increases affinity for LPS where as the hydrophobic residues that interact at the next phase of binding are more amenable to disruptions in contiguity. These factors are discussed using the helical wheel diagram that shows the clear amphiphilicity displayed by these peptides. (C.J Thomas et al Manuscript under preparation, 2000) Chapter six discusses the mode of action of certain LPS binding proteins. Limulus anti endotoxic factor (LALF) plays a vital role in the innate immune based defense systems of the horseshoe crab. Galectin-3 is a metal ion independent, galactosc binding Icctin of human origin with unknown functions. Both these phylogcntically-unrclatcd proteins exhibit LPS/lipid A recognizing properties. ITC and SPR studies have been used to determine the binding constants displayed by these proteins for lipid A. LALF bind to lipid A with very high affinity than compared to Galectin-3 and is also able to take away selectively lipid A from both monolayers and tethered liposomes. Galectin-3 does not show this property of LALF, which might account for its lowered affinities. Also structurally LALF has amphiphilic nature that confers high lipid A binding activity, which is clearly lacking in Galectin-3. These studies in conjunction with the knowledge gained from the study of LPS-PMB interaction stress on the importance of amphiphilicity in LPS recognition. (C.J Thomas et al Manuscript under preparation, 2000). The final chapter is a general discussion that attempts to collate all these kinetic and thermodynamic observations in the pursuit of designing small easily manipulatable peptides that exhibit high LPS binding activity. These studies are aimed to act as rough guidelines to the design of LPS sequestering peptides that might have better therapeutic and pharmacokinetic properties. The appendix to the main body of work presented in thesis are two pieces of work pertaining to the elucidation the kinetics and mechanism of sugar lectin interactions, when sugars are presented as glycolipids in monolayers or bilaycrs liposomes. Mode of the presentation of sugars at cell-surfaces in the form of glycolipids as ligands influence their recognition by macromolecular receptors like lectins. Appendix 1 is a study of the mode of action of Ulex europeus I lectin binding to H-fucolipid containing tethered liposomes, by SPR. Fucosylated sugars are often used as key markers in histochemical analysis of malignant cancerous tissues. Ulex lectin plays a vital role as a marker for identification of these tissues. The kinetics and thermodynamic parameters that are obtained in this study throw some light on the mode of recognition of glycolipid receptor by Ulex europeus I lectin (C.J Thomas and A. Surolia 2000). Appendix 2 is a study, that attempts to quantify the initial kinetic parameters that correlate the recognition of glycolipid receptors with their inclination at the membrane surface and the influence of charge on them by soyabean agglutinin (SBA), Abrus agglutinin I and II. Studies on the soyabean agglutinin-globoside interaction highlights the divalent cation mediated reorientation of these receptors on their accessibility and recognition to the agglutinin. The divalent cations are speculated to orient the oligosaccharide head groups in a spatial geometry that allows a heightened kinetics of their interaction by SBA. These studies reveal that the reorganization of the binding pocket of a lectin can also have a profound influence on ihc rates of recognition of a glycospingolipid ligand by a lectin as exemplified by Abrus agglutinin II- GM1 interactions (C.J Thomas ct al, Manuscript under preparation).

La mitochondrie est de plus en plus reconnue pour sa contribution à la dégénerescence musculaire. Les dysfonctions mitochondriales, en plus de causer une défaillance énergétique, contribuent à la signalisation apoptotique, stimule la production de ROS et peuvent induire une surcharge calcique. Ces caractéristiques sont tous reliées à certains types de myopathies. Cette thèse met en lumières comment certaines dysfonctions mitochondriales peuvent intervenir dans la pathogenèse de diverses myopathies. Nous démontrons que les dysfonctions mitochondriales sont impliqués dans l’atrophie dû à la perte d’innervation. Par contre, la désensabilisation de l’ouverture du pore mitochondrial de transition de perméabilité, via ablation génétique de cyclophiline-D, ne prévient ni la signalisation apoptotique mitochondrial ni l’atrophie. Nous avons aussi observé des dysfonctions mitochondriales dans le muscle atteint de dystrophie musculaire de Duchenne qui furent améliorés suite à une transfection de PGC1-α, laquelle résulta aussi en une amélioration de la pathologie. Finalement, nous démontrons que le recyclage de mitochondrie par les voies de mitophagies et de contrôles de la qualité impliquant Parkin et possiblement d’autres voies de signalisation inconnues sont cruciales au recouvrement cardiaqe lors d’un choc septique. / Mitochondria are increasingly being recognized for their role in contributing in cellular damage. Mitochondrial dysfunctions, in addition to causing energy failure, contribute to apoptotic signaling, stimulate ROS production and calcium overload. These are all features of various types of myopathies. This thesis sheds light on how mitochondrial dyfunctions may contribute to the pathogenesis in certain myopathies that have been found to show mitochondrial abnormalities. Specifically, we found that although mitochondrial dysfunctions are involved in denervation-associated atrophy, desensitizing mitochondrial permeability transition pore opening through genetic ablation of CyclophilinD does not prevent mitochondrial apoptotic signaling nor atrophy in this model of chronic inactivity. We also observed mitochondrial dysfunctions in the Duchenne dystrophic muscle that were improved after PGC1-α transfection, which also resulted in an amelioration of the disease presentation. Finally, we found that mitochondrial recycling, led by Parkin and alternate mitophagy pathways a crucial component of cardiac recovery in sepsis.

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Abortion and severe pre-eclampsia/eclampsia remain the major causes of maternal mortality in Zimbabwe. Based on this problem, factors associated with maternal mortality due to abortion and severe pre-eclampsia/eclampsia were investigated to improve pregnancy outcomes. Cases and controls were selected from 4895 abortion and 318 severe preeclampsia/ eclampsia obstetric records to conduct a retrospective case-control study. Significant risk factors identified for reducing maternal mortality due to postabortion complications included the administration of oxytocic drugs and evacuations of the uterus whilst anaemia and sepsis apparently reduced these women's chances of survival. No significant factors could be identified which influenced maternal deaths among women suffering from severe pre-eclampsia/eclampsia. Magnesium sulphate was not routinely administered, as recommended internationally. In both groups, cases apparently received better reported quantitative care than controls. Recommendations based on this research report include improved midwifery education and in-service training, regular audits of patients' records and changed policies for managing these conditions more effectively in Zimbabwe. / Health Studies / D. Litt. et Phil. (Advanced Nursing Sciences)