Female genital mutilation or cutting (FGM/C), a common practice among Sierra Leonean women, carries significant psychological and physical risks. Prior to this study, a substantial need existed for inquiry of the experiences and belief systems within this cultural group to better understand the effects of FGM/C on women and girls. Guided by feminist theory and the theory of cultural relativism, the goal of this phenomenological study was to review the cultural perspectives and experiences of Sierra Leonean women who underwent FGM/C to investigate their concerns about safety and their perceptions of the practices. In addition, this study explored concerns among Sierra Leonean women about the procedure performed on their daughters and to what they attributed the continued practice of FGM/C. Participants included a purposeful sample of 12 women from Sierra Leone who had experienced FGM/C. Data were collected via in-person, semi-structured interviews and analyzed thematically. Analysis revealed differences in participant definitions of FGM/C, cultural and social aspects of the procedure, personal beliefs and perceptions of the procedures. Results provide new understandings to help health and human rights organizations implement proactive safety measures for these women and girls. Positive social change from this investigation may occur via proper education about FGM/C. Goals include helping women understand the risks associated with the practice and to make their own informed decisions regarding the procedure. Findings revealed that a powerful strategy for protecting women's health and well-being related to FGM/C may be through education on the facts of the procedure.

<p>The recruitment, enlistment and use of children younger than fifteen to participate actively in hostilities is prohibited in customary international law as well as in several international legal instruments. The use of child soldiers is, despite of the prohibition, a widespread phenomenon with 300 000 as the estimated number of child soldiers in national armies as well as in various rebel and insurgent groups in the world today. Although the problem is world-wide; most recent focus have been on Africa where children have served and still serve in ongoing conflicts in various functions including but not limited to front line soldiers, messengers, guards and sex-slaves. Many of the world‟s child soldiers are girls that are facing the risks of sexual abuse and discrimination. In this thesis the 1996-2002 civil war in Sierra Leone will serve as an example of a conflict were children were used as soldiers.Prohibition against the use of child soldiers can be found in international legal instruments in both human rights law and international humanitarian law. It can also be found in instruments in the fields of international labor law and prohibition against slavery. The provisions differ in their definition of a child soldier; concerning age limit as well as the child‟s function during the conflict. There are also differences in the responsibility of states to protect children against being used as soldiers. This particularly affects girl soldiers since they often have their primary tasks behind the front line and thus are not usually included in the more narrow definitions of child soldiers.Two courts; the International Criminal Court (ICC) and the Special Court for Sierra Leone (SCSL) are used as examples of enforcement mechanisms. The SCSL as being the first court to deliver convictions for the use of child soldiers as well as thoroughly discussing the illegality of the use of child soldiers has been of importance in the fight against the use of child soldiers. The ICC will be the enforcement mechanism of the future and it has already prosecuted for the use of child soldiers. The SCSL has raised the awareness and started the struggle against impunity for those responsible for using child soldiers but it is the ICC that will have to continue the fight, although with some obstacles to overcome.</p>

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Illinois State University, 2006. / Title from title page screen, viewed on April 27, 2007. Dissertation Committee: Cynthia Huff (chair), Ronald Strickland, Rebecca Saunders, Perle Besserman. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 216-230) and abstract. Also available in print.

Twenty Sierra Leonean rural illiterate mothers were querried about their perceptions of the factors related to Kwashiorkor. Demographic data was hand tabulated to determine the frequency of parents' occupations, pregnancies, live and stillbirths, living and dead children, and causes of children's deaths. Chi-square analyses were done to assess the distribution of responses to questions about 19 beliefs which the researcher thought were related to Kwashiorkor. Student t-test was used to determine the differences in the total number and outcome of pregnancies between women who agreed and disagreed about the role of four of the factors which tended to show or showed significance with chi-square analyses.The families were subsistence farmers. In addition, 65 percent or the husbands had other jobs. Combined, the 20 women had 191 pregnancies, 166 live births, (87 percent of pregnancies), 25 (13 percent) stillbirths, 82 living children (43 percent of pregnancies and 49 percent of live births). The women lost through death 84 (50.6 percent) of the 166 live born children.The average woman experienced 9.6 pregnancies, resulting in 8.3 live births, and 1.3 stillbirths, had an average of 4.1 living children and had lost an average of 4.2 live born children. The data indicated that the major problem with infant/child mortality occurred after birth. Protein-Energy Malnutrition accounted for 38.1 percent of the children's deaths.Of the 19 factors about which women were querried in relation to role in Kwashiorkor, to only 4, namely “Witchcraft,” “Religious beliefs,” “Grandmother's advice,” and “Mother-in-law's advice” did less than half of the women agree. The majority of women agreed that 15 of the factors were associated with Kwashiorkor.That indicated the women had supportable understanding of factors truly related to Kwashiorkor.Three constructs, beliefs about “Witchcraft,” “Introduction of other foods,” and “Immunizations,” differentiated incidence and outcome of pregnancy among women. However, belief about the importance of “Immunizations” differentiated infant/child mortality and will be most useful in future research to analyze differences and to identify groups at greatest risk of child mortality.Ball State UniversityMuncie, IN 47306

La recherche que nous avons réalisée dans le cadre de ce mémoire porte sur le thème de politique pénale en matière de responsabilité des enfants soldats, auteurs de crimes graves de droit international. En effet, depuis plusieurs décennies, de nombreux chefs de guerre s'engagent à recruter et à enrôler les enfants comme soldats, et à les faire participer au déroulement des hostilités. Ces derniers sont victimes d'abus et de mauvais traitements de la part des adultes, et sont souvent, sous l'effet de la drogue ou de la contrainte, amenés à commettre des crimes graves de droit international. D'où les raisons pour lesquelles ils sont, dans de nombreux cas, qualifiés de "victimes et de bourreaux" . De plus, il est à souligner que nonobstant les nombreuses initiatives de la communauté internationale visant à promouvoir la protection des enfants dans les conflits armés, leur vulnérabilité continue de faire soulever de grandes inquiétudes, notamment en terme d'effectivité et d'efficacité des normes internationales en vigueur. Notons que la rédaction de ce mémoire est calquée essentiellement sur la documentation écrite. En ce sens, il a été décidé, tout d'abord, d'analyser et de critiquer le cadre juridique de la protection et de la responsabilité pénale des enfants dans les conflits armés, en vue de faire ressortir ses forces et ses faiblesses. Ensuite, l'accent est mis sur l'état de la justice pénale internationale, particulièrement sur l'expérience de la Sierra Leone en matière de justice transitionnelle tendant non seulement vers la justice, mais aussi vers la réparation, la réinsertion sociale et la réconciliation nationale. Enfin, nous avons mis en évidence les diverses facettes du discours sur la sanction pénale (nature, fonctions, ses objectifs et ses finalités). Ainsi, ces axes d'analyse nous ont permis de comprendre que dans la logique d'une justice transitionnelle, les questions concernant la responsabilité pénale des enfants soldats, en particulier ceux âgés de 15 à 18 ans, ne peuvent être résolues uniquement selon les rationalités restitutive et prospective. Mais qu'il est important, compte tenu, d'une part, des exigences de paix et de réconciliation nationale, et de l'autre, le poids de la responsabilité subjective sur la responsabilité objective en matière de crimes graves de droit international perpétrés par des mineurs, de traiter leur cas d'après une politique pénale intégrant des éléments de la rationalité restaurative afin de pouvoir répondre aux attentes des victimes, des délinquants et de la société. C'est ce qui est exprimé dans nos différentes recommandations. ______________________________________________________________________________ MOTS-CLÉS DE L’AUTEUR : Enfant-Soldat, Responsabilité pénale, Majorité pénale, Justice transitionnelle (justice pénale classique, justice restaurative), Politique pénale.

Syftet med uppsatsen har varit att genom en fallstudie av kriget i Sierra Leone (1991-2002) sökaefter konventionella inslag i aktören Revolutionary United Fronts (RUF) våldsbeteende ochdärigenom undersöka huruvida krigets natur kan beskrivas utifrån ett rationellt eller irrationelltperspektiv. För att uppfylla syftet med uppsatsen har två frågeställningar använts; ”Finns detkonventionella inslag i aktören RUF:s våldsbeteende?” och ”Kan krigets natur i Sierra Leonebeskrivas utifrån ett rationellt eller irrationellt perspektiv?”. Teorianknytningen utgörs av Carl vonClausewitz teorier om krigets natur.Resultatet av undersökningen visar att konventionella inslag i form av åtskillnad mellankombattanter och icke-kombattanter, konventionella medel och metoder samt politiskt syfte går attfinna i RUF:s våldsbeteende.Sammantaget visar fallstudien på att RUF:s våldsbeteende inte kännetecknades av ett enda kaos,ett allas krig mot alla på etniska, religiösa eller ideologiska grunder och därför inte kan beskrivassom ett irrationellt fenomen. I stället menar jag att krigets natur som det gestaltade sig under krigeti Sierra Leone går att beskriva utifrån ett rationellt perspektiv, typiskt för konventionella krig, medgrund i Clausewitz teorier om krigets natur. / The aim of this essay has been to search for the presence of conventionalfeatures in the violent behaviour of the Revolutionary United Front (RUF)through a case study of the war in Sierra Leone (1991-2002) and therebyexamine whether the nature of war can be described from a rational orirrational perspective.To interpret and achieve the aim of the essay I have used Carl von Clausewitztheories on the nature of war. In order to analyse the presence of conventionalfeatures in the violent behaviour of the RUF, three indicators are used;a distinction between combatants and non-combatants, conventional meansand methods and a political purpose. These indicators are derived fromClausewitz trinity of war (people, army and government).The essay concludes that there are indeed presences of conventional features inthe violent behaviour of the RUF.The essay further concludes that the behaviour of the RUF was notcharacterized by total chaos, a war by all against all, caused by ethnic, religiousand ideological reasons. The behaviour of the RUF can therefore not bedescribed as an irrational phenomenon.Instead, the essay argues that the nature of war as it turned out in Sierra Leonecan be described from a rational perspective, typical for conventional wars,based upon the theories by Carl von Clausewitz on the nature of war.Keywords: Sierra Leone, Revolutionary United Front (RUF), low-intensityconflict, new wars, Clausewitz, rational perspective. / Avdelning: ALB - Slutet Mag 3 C-upps.Hylla: Upps. ChP 02-04

The recruitment, enlistment and use of children younger than fifteen to participate actively in hostilities is prohibited in customary international law as well as in several international legal instruments. The use of child soldiers is, despite of the prohibition, a widespread phenomenon with 300 000 as the estimated number of child soldiers in national armies as well as in various rebel and insurgent groups in the world today. Although the problem is world-wide; most recent focus have been on Africa where children have served and still serve in ongoing conflicts in various functions including but not limited to front line soldiers, messengers, guards and sex-slaves. Many of the world‟s child soldiers are girls that are facing the risks of sexual abuse and discrimination. In this thesis the 1996-2002 civil war in Sierra Leone will serve as an example of a conflict were children were used as soldiers.Prohibition against the use of child soldiers can be found in international legal instruments in both human rights law and international humanitarian law. It can also be found in instruments in the fields of international labor law and prohibition against slavery. The provisions differ in their definition of a child soldier; concerning age limit as well as the child‟s function during the conflict. There are also differences in the responsibility of states to protect children against being used as soldiers. This particularly affects girl soldiers since they often have their primary tasks behind the front line and thus are not usually included in the more narrow definitions of child soldiers.Two courts; the International Criminal Court (ICC) and the Special Court for Sierra Leone (SCSL) are used as examples of enforcement mechanisms. The SCSL as being the first court to deliver convictions for the use of child soldiers as well as thoroughly discussing the illegality of the use of child soldiers has been of importance in the fight against the use of child soldiers. The ICC will be the enforcement mechanism of the future and it has already prosecuted for the use of child soldiers. The SCSL has raised the awareness and started the struggle against impunity for those responsible for using child soldiers but it is the ICC that will have to continue the fight, although with some obstacles to overcome.

The recent civil war in Sierra Leone (1991-2002) saw massive migrations amongst the civilian population and widespread damage to villages and towns. This study combines elements of military and cultural geography to ask the questions of how the events of the war changed the cultural landscape and how the cultural landscape influenced the course of the war. Fieldwork for this study was conducted during the summer of 2005 in the Eastern Province and included numerous semi-structured interviews regarding the landscape histories of villages, towns, and various temporary camps. These findings revealed that a clear relationship existed between the civil war and the cultural landscape. On the one hand, the war caused dramatic changes in the morphology of the cultural landscape, creating three distinct landscapes (pre-war, wartime, and post-war), while on the other hand the cultural landscape went far to structure the character of the war. In order to understand how the cultural landscape structured the war one must first consider how the landscape was perceived by each major faction (Revolutionary United Front, Sierra Leone Army, and Civil Defense Forces) as presenting a unique set of risks and opportunities. This perception was based in their strategic intentions and capabilities. Intentions can be understood as military objectives (derived from political goals), while capabilities can be understood as factors which constrain and enable action. Since each faction had different military objectives and capabilities they each perceived the landscape in a unique manner and this perception influenced their military operations. It is recommended that cultural geographers begin to study the impacts of war on the landscape and that military geographers expand their focus on the physical landscape by taking into account the role of the cultural landscape and environmental perception.

Diss. Uppsala : Univ., 2008.

The trade in human beings, or Trafficking in Persons (TiP) is global and affecting every country. In the last years, increasing attention has been paid to TiP for the purpose of sexual exploitation. This led to a growing need to tackle this phenomenon. Only recently, the relationship between TiP and armed conflict has been acknowledged but remains under-studied. Cameron and Newman (2008) have outlined a framework in which structural factors linked to proximate factors could have explanatory value on the relationship between armed conflict and TiP. This thesis analyzes two cases of armed conflict, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Sierra Leone, attempting to explain the increase in TiP of women and girls for the purpose of sexual exploitation by applying this theoretical framework. In this qualitative research a comparative method is used in applying the framework to two case studies, aiming to identify the explanatory value of Cameron and Newman’s (2008) framework. It is found that the general explanatory value of the framework is high and the proximate factors can be classified as: a fully explanatory proximate factor, case dependent proximate factors, and conflict-phase proximate factors. In addition, this thesis is identifying some elements that could influence TiP of women and girls for the purpose of sexual exploitation during conflict and post-conflict that could be of added value to this framework, namely: the implementation of government strategies, corruption of non-government officials, economic deterioration as a consequence of migration, and involvement of peacekeepers and members of the international community in TiP of women and girls for the purpose of sexual exploitation.