Massage therapy is often used to treat musculoskeletal symptoms and to promote wellness. While evidence regarding its effectiveness is increasing, research related to actual practice and studies seeking to understand the mechanisms of massage therapy are needed. The purpose of this research was to describe the characteristics of massage therapists and their clients and to understand the role of communication in massage therapy outcomes. The first study examined the outcome expectations, expectancies, and behaviors of a random sample of massage therapists in Iowa (n=151) using a cross-sectional survey. The second study used a practice-based research design incorporating two samples of massage therapy clients (n=320 and n=321) to develop and validate a measure of client expectations of massage, the Client Expectations of Massage Scale (CEMS). The third study examined the influence of client expectations and massage therapists' interpersonal attractiveness on pain and satisfaction following massage. Social Cognitive Theory and Expectancy Violation Theory were used as frameworks to demonstrate how health behavior and communication theories can provide insight to massage therapy research. Results indicated that massage therapists had high expectations regarding the benefits of massage therapy and engaged in a variety of behaviors that reflect the clinical, educational, and interpersonal nature of massage therapy. In addition to using a variety of manual therapies, the massage therapists educated their clients in areas such as diet, stress management, and exercise to improve client health. Similarly, clients had positive expectations as measured by the outcome, clinical, educational, and interpersonal subscales of the CEMS. Positive outcome expectations predicted significant improvements in pain and serenity. High interpersonal expectations were related to negative changes in serenity. The third study revealed that high satisfaction was influenced by positive interpersonal attractiveness but more research is needed to understand the influence of client expectations being met on satisfaction. Initially high educational expectations, exceeded educational expectations, violated interpersonal expectations, and positive interpersonal attractiveness were related to less pain following massage. In conclusion, this research demonstrated that client expectations and massage therapist interpersonal attractiveness are important constructs to consider when evaluating the effects of massage therapy.

The aim of this study was to investigate potential factors of why children and youths generally start bullying, but also the long and short-term effects bullying has on its victims. In order to answer the research questions, the method used was a systematic literature review which includes collecting data by using databases such as Libsearch and Swepub. We obtained seven studies including doctoral dissertations and scientific articles, some of which include collected data results from several longitudinal, quantitative, qualitative and meta-analytic studies. The theoretical framework used in this study include social cognitive theory by social psychologist Albert Bandura. This theory was relevant in order to analyze how bullying behavior can be designed based on the social environment together with cognitive abilities. The results indicate that bullying is a complex phenomenon explained differently within the research field and our main finding shows that the victims define bullying differently from the definition used by researchers within the field. Several different factors emerged as to why some children and youths are prone to bullying. This study identifies that some of these factors are due to moral disengagement which refers to distancing from moral actions and lack of moral emotions such empathy, sympathy and guilt. Furthermore, domestic violence and social environment such as aggressive peers are also explanatory factors to why children develop and normalize a bullying behavior. Finally, this study has shown that bullying affects the victims at both early and adult age. Bully victims are often being affected in an early age developing mental health issues such as depression, anxiety, low self-esteem and increased risk for behavioral problems associated with substance use. These problems often continue into adulthood where beside mental and physical health issues the victims also struggle with trust and relationship issues.

This essay aims to study the relationship between cosplay content creators and TikTok’s algorithm. To study this relationship the essay will conduct a qualitative semi-structured interviews with creators from the cosplay community on TikTok. Since the rise of digital plattforms the media and the role of producer as well as consumer has changed drastically. TikTok has been growing rapidly in popularity since its entry on the market, and by 2020 it had 500 million active users. Since many of today's digital platforms have consumer produced content, the consumer of today has taken on a mixed role between consuming and creating content, which creates a new relationship. The content consumers produce vary vastly on TikTok but one kind that has been present in much of TikTok’s existence is cosplay content. Cosplayers are creators who design costumes to already established characters or franchises. Since a discourse has started in the cosplay community on TikTok about the algorithm suppressing their content the study found it to be a good way to start examining content creators as individuals and how they behave towards an algorithm in their content creation process. The study aims to use algorithmic “folk” theory to examine what theories have been created in the community and how the theories affect the creators. The study also applies gatekeeping theory and social cognitive theory (SCT) to paint a clearer picture in how these creators view the algorithm. Seven interviews with cosplay content creators were conducted and with the help of a thematic analysis method the study found several themes in how the creators view and behave in relation to TikTok and its algorithm. The results of our study shows that there’s a definite present of “folk” theories created inside of the community. The most distinct behaviour relating to “folk” theory among the creators was that they can’t use the hashtag cosplay in the belief that the algorithm would suppress the content. This study concludes that the creators are more aware of the algorithm then they themself know and have different ways of working with and around it.

This study was undertaken to investigate the role of self-efficacy in the career trajectories of women who are currently employed in STEM fields and women who had studied in any of these fields, but either never worked in STEM, or decided to leave at some stage. The assumption was that women remain in STEM careers because of the motivational effect of STEM self-efficacy. In order to do this investigation, two studies were included in a parallel convergent mixed-methods design and two samples were studied. The first sample of 15 women, which included both women in STEM (n = 8) and women who had left STEM (n = 7), were interviewed and invited to talk about their STEM studies and careers. The interviews were conducted according to a semi-structured interview. The second sample, which consisted of 108 participants of whom 88 were actively involved in STEM and 20 had left the field, completed an online survey that contained a biographical section, three self-efficacy scales and an Exploratory Questionnaire (EQ) that covered aspects such as motivation to study and work in STEM and barriers experienced. The three self-efficacy scales used were the General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSES), the New General Self-Efficacy Scale (NGSES) and the Occupational Self-Efficacy Scale (OSES). Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) was chosen as the conceptual framework for the study and the development of Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) was described from its inception to its current integrated models of career development, as applied to women in STEM careers. The integrated models show that a combination of self-efficacy and outcome expectations is crucial as a predictor of career success in the STEM fields, which can also be influenced by additional variables, such as career decision making, career and study satisfaction, persistence, contextual support and barriers. The Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) and Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) provided the theoretical framework for themes for the qualitative thematic analysis. A top-down identification of themes was done by using the transcripts of interviews. Self-efficacy, outcome expectations and barriers were among the twelve themes that were identified. The survey data was described and statistically analysed. Descriptive statistics were provided for the selfefficacy scales and biographical information. The STEM and non-STEM groups were compared with a series of contingency tables on biographical information. A t-test was used to compare the self-efficacy scales by STEM status in order to find significant differences. The EQ was subjected to an exploratory principal component analysis (PCA) and 10 factors or components were identified. The factors ranged from motivation, barriers and perceptions about gender to STEM and education. Finally, the factors were compared with the qualitative themes to explore the role of self-efficacy in the careers of STEM and non-STEM women. The contribution made by this study is that it highlights the importance of the sources of selfefficacy in ensuring that women remain in their chosen fields. A frequently under-emphasised aspect is that of the emotional source of self-efficacy, which this study found to be the passion, focus, enjoyment and satisfaction that motivate women to remain in STEM. The relevant literature frequently observes that girls and women do not like STEM subjects and activities. However, the passion and commitment of women witnessed by the researcher while conducting this study counters this observation. Some women do enjoy science and it is by no means a proven fact that a lack of interest in STEM is gendered. Programmes focusing on motivating women to enter and remain in STEM ought to take this particular source of selfefficacy into account. The question is, of course, whether one can create interest, instil passion and make STEM attractive to women. However, this is a separate topic for further study. One of the clear findings of this study relates to the importance of inner-circle support and motivation to enter and remain in STEM. Programmes should find a way to encourage families who are already involved in STEM to include children, and especially girls. The very personal nature of encouragement, motivation and support received from parents and close family members function as a major source of self-efficacy. This calls for a creative approach to motivational programmes in order to make commitment to STEM inclusive. Another point that was emphasised by women in the qualitative sample, as well as in the quantitative results, was the major importance of personal interest in the field of science. In fact, this was even more important than the motivational support provided by close family. In essence, it relates to the passion expressed by women in STEM, but the importance of developing a strong interest in science cannot be overstated. Finally, several of the respondents working either in or outside STEM mentioned the pressures experienced in an attempt to balance family and work responsibilities. Some women manage this successfully, even though they are in STEM careers, while others deal with the problem by leaving STEM. However, one should point out that even in non-STEM careers the pressures and expectations of family life and children exist. Programmes dealing with women in STEM should take this problem very seriously and should assist women in effectively managing and dealing with the combined pressures of family and work. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2017. / Psychology / PhD / Unrestricted

Magister Commercii (Industrial Psychology) - MCom(IPS) / This study investigated development centres as a method to improve the generalised self-efficacy of university graduates. This research was motivated by the various challenges graduates face in order to successfully transition into the world of work. To reach employability, graduates face high unemployment rates, inequality, a slow growing economy, high employer expectations, and a skills mismatch, all of which impacts their self-efficacy, performance and motivation levels. The sample population for this research included Industrial Psychology graduates at a select university in the Western Cape, South Africa (n=17). A quasi-experimental methodology was implemented where an intervention group (n=7) and a control group (n=10) were taken through a development centre approach. The primary research objective was to identify whether the generalised self-efficacy of graduates can be positively affected by a development centre approach in the short-term and long-term.

Due to the passage of the Gainful Employment Rule of 2015, for-profit schools must ensure graduate employability, which forces vocational schools to make student success a priority. The concepts of stress mindset from the cognitive activation theory of stress and stress management self-efficacy from social cognitive theory were used in this study to assess the relationship of each to the employability of graduates. This study utilized a nonrandomized convenience sampling method and a multiple logistic regression with categorical dependent/criterion variables (gainful employment versus not) and continuous predictor variables (stress management self-efficacy, stress mindset) to compare the relationships. Stress mindset levels were measured using the stress mindset measure while stress management self-efficacy levels were measured by the stress management self-efficacy measure with 66 participants. The results of this study indicated that while both increased levels of stress management self-efficacy and a positive stress mindset were associated with a significantly increased likelihood of gainful employment, on its own, stress management self-efficacy was a better indicator than was stress mindset, on its own. The implications for positive social change from the results of this study, are a greater understanding of the importance of stress management self-efficacy and a positive stress mindset on the employability of technical school graduates. This knowledge could lead to the creation of improved stress management and stress mindset assistance for technical school students, which could lead to increased employability in these graduates.

Student practice and the influences that shape self-regulated behavior (habits) remain of interest among educators. This self-regulated behavior includes factors such as what informs a student’s selection of a goal during self-regulated practice, the motivation to engage in an activity, and the value attributed to an activity. Interest exists concerning the discrepancy, if any, in student-versus-teacher evaluation as informed by these factors. Through the application of Bandura’s (1986) social cognitive theory, I examined the motivators, informers, values, and sustainers of the practice habits of eight university undergraduate performance and music education majors during self-regulated practice. The instructors came from five applied lesson studios in which the students were enrolled. Using a primarily descriptive methodology, the source of the data I collected was two pre-arranged applied lessons and two pre-arranged practice sessions for each student during the fall semester of 2018. I contrasted the information taken from the practice sessions with the goal-directed and instructor-modeled activities typical of the applied lessons. To compare the self-assessment of competencies with the assessment of the instructor, I employed a survey in the form of a questionnaire and reviewed videotapes of the participants in both applied lessons and self-regulated practice. The data collected for applied lessons and self-regulated practice were then separately coded and placed into one of two categories, musical or non-musical behavior. I then compared this data among and within the participating applied lesson studios. My analysis revealed that the preponderance of instructional time was spent in musical activities. The same was true, but to a slightly lesser degree, for students during self-regulated practice. I observed that motivation and the value attributed to an activity were informed by modeling of goal-directed activities (habits) during applied lessons. The students carried this goal-directed activity into self-regulated practice. These practice habits maintained the behavior that supported the goals, the achievement of which informed students’ self-assessment of their performance competencies. Students were less satisfied with their level of performance competency than were their instructors. This lack of satisfaction occurred despite the alignment of the observed selection of practice habits with the activities modeled by the instructor in applied lessons and was contrary to previous research (Varela et al., 2016) that found students’ assessment of their competencies higher than the assessment of their instructors. One implication of this study is the importance of instructors’ training of students in task analysis regarding practice habits. Such training, combined with modeling, may enable students to choose goals wisely and to self-assess accurately to affect the self-regulation necessary to achieve musical proficiency. The differences in goals between students and instructors, practice-room behavior, and self-assessment warrant further exploration.

Bakgrund: Fall hos äldre personer är vanligt förekommande och får ofta allvarliga konsekvenser för individen såsom svårigheter att bo kvar sin bostad, sjukdom och död. Fall hos äldre innebär också stor belastning på sjukvården och stora samhällskostnader. I den kommunala hemsjukvården arbetar fysioterapeuter med att förebygga fall genom olika åtgärder i hemmet.  Syfte: Att beskriva hur fysioterapeuter upplever att de arbetar vid fallförebyggande hembesök för äldre i hemsjukvården. Metod: Studien genomfördes med en kvalitativ design och induktiv ansats. Sex fysioterapeuter rekryterades till individuella intervjuer genom ett ändamålsenligt bekvämlighetsurval från en kommun i mellersta Sverige. Materialet från intervjuerna analyserades genom en kvalitativ innehållsanalys. Resultat: Resultatet delades upp i fem kategorier med tillhörande underkategorier, två respektive fem. Informanterna belyste hur de identifierade individens egna behov och resurser, skapade ett förtroende, identifierade individens omgivningsfaktorer, informerade om fallförebyggande och identifierade svårigheter och hinder vid hembesök. Slutsats: Fysioterapeuterna beskrev att genom att ta hänsyn till fysiska, psykologiska faktorer och omgivningsfaktorer hos individen möjliggörs genomförandet av fallförebyggande åtgärder.

Background: Today, people tend to be less physically active than before, much because of thesociety we live in with cars and technology. Research shows a reduction in physical activity, even more with people who have some form of visual impairment. People visual impairment can experience limitations in everyday life such as not being able to get around or fear. Purpose: The purpose of the study is to identify motivational factors and perceived barriers in persons with visual impairment of physical activity habits. Method: The study is of a qualitative nature where 6 interviews have been made on persons with visual impairment. Result: The results of this study have been analyzed with help of the social cognitive theory; it's a theory where three themes are in focus, environment, behavior and personal factors. The result of the study has shown that the persons with visual impairment are physically active in some form, but all are not sufficiently active to reach the WHO’s recommendations. At the same time, the biggest motivation factors are from internal character, but some have external as a major motivation factor. However, it turned out that the primary goal for everyone was health, which is an internal motivational factor. As far as perceived obstacles are concerned, environment was the largest category of barrier, but also personal factors and behavior influenced in the results section. Conclusion: In summary, it can be said that there are many influencing factors about why a person with visual impairment is more or less active and what perceived obstacles exist. It could be due to geographical place of residence or what one has for psychological thinking. However, one cannot take away from the fact that the environment can often be adapted to make physical activity more accessible to everyone.

The prevalence of tobacco smoking among persons with recurrent pain is approximately twice that observed in the general population. Smoking has been associated with the development and exacerbation of several chronically painful conditions. Conversely, there is both experimental and cross-sectional evidence that pain is a potent motivator of smoking. A recent study provided the first evidence that laboratory-induced pain could elicit increased craving and produce shorter latencies to smoke (Ditre & Brandon, 2008). To further elucidate interrelations between pain and smoking, and to identify potential targets for intervention, the current study tested whether several constructs derived from social-cognitive theory influence the causal pathway between pain and increased motivation to smoke. Smokers (N = 132) were randomly assigned to one of four conditions in this 2 X 2 between-subjects experimental design. Results indicated that manipulations designed to (a) challenge smoking-related outcome expectancies for pain reduction, and (b) enhance pain-related coping, each produced decreased urge ratings and increased latencies to smoke, relative to controls.