Thesis (M.A. in Security Studies (Homeland Security and Defense))--Naval Postgraduate School, December 2008. / Thesis Advisor(s): Bergin, Richard. "December 2008." Description based on title screen as viewed on February 2, 2009. Includes bibliographical references (p. 117-131). Also available in print.

The span of control is the most discussed single concept in classical and modern management theory. In specifying conditions for organizational effectiveness, the span of control has generally been regarded as a critical factor. Existing research work has focused mainly on qualitative methods to analyze this concept, for example heuristic rules based on experiences and/or intuition. This research takes a quantitative approach to this problem and formulates it as a binary integer model, which is used as a tool to study the organizational design issue. This model considers a range of requirements affecting management and supervision of a given set of jobs in a company. These decision variables include allocation of jobs to workers, considering complexity and compatibility of each job with respect to workers, and the requirement of management for planning, execution, training, and control activities in a hierarchical organization. The objective of the model is minimal operations cost, which is the sum of supervision costs at each level of the hierarchy, and the costs of workers assigned to jobs. The model is intended for application in the make-to-order industries as a design tool. It could also be applied to make-to-stock companies as an evaluation tool, to assess the optimality of their current organizational structure. Extensive experiments were conducted to validate the model, to study its behavior, and to evaluate the impact of changing parameters with practical problems. This research proposes a meta-heuristic approach to solving large-size problems, based on the concept of greedy algorithms and the Meta-RaPS algorithm. The proposed heuristic was evaluated with two measures of performance: solution quality and computational speed. The quality is assessed by comparing the obtained objective function value to the one achieved by the optimal solution. The computational efficiency is assessed by comparing the computer time used by the proposed heuristic to the time taken by a commercial software system. Test results show the proposed heuristic procedure generates good solutions in a time-efficient manner.

O objetivo desta dissertação é testar o modelo de salário eficiência (shirking model) para a indústria brasileira de construção civil e seus subsetores. Esta versão do modelo de salário eficiência assume a existência de uma relação negativa entre salários e supervisão. A investigação empírica está centrada sobre a variável span of control (razão supervisores/ supervisionados) como proxy para intensidade de supervisão. Os dados utilizados para o teste de hipótese desta teoria são os da Relação Anual de Informações Sociais para os anos de 2012 e 2013. Como novidade em relação aos trabalhos anteriores, utilizamos os dados da RAIS em uma estrutura de painel de indivíduos para o período, controlando tanto os possíveis vieses de variável omitida (efeito fixo) como o de simultaneidade (span of control), bem como os dados referentes aos subsetores que constituem o setor da construção civil (construção de edifícios, obras de infraestrutura e serviços especializados para construção). Conclui-se que a hipótese de salário eficiência é corroborada pelos dados tanto para o setor como um todo como para seus subsetores. / The objective of this dissertation is to test the efficiency wage model (shirking version) to Brazilian civil construction industry and its subsectors. This version of the efficiency wage model defends the existence of a negative relationship between wages and supervision. The empirical research is focused on the variable span of control (ratio supervisors /staff) as a proxy for supervision intensity. The data used are from "Relação Anual de Informações Sociais" for the years of 2012 and 2013. As an innovation compared to previous work, we use data from the RAIS in a panel structure for individuals period, controlling the possible boas of omitted variable (fixed effect) and also the simultaneity (Instrumental Variable) as well as data relating to subsectors that constitute the construction industry (building construction, infrastructure works and specialized services for construction). It is concluded that the hypothesis of efficiency wage is supported by the data both for the sector as a whole and for its subsectors.

O objetivo desta dissertação é testar o modelo de salário eficiência (shirking model) para a indústria brasileira de construção civil e seus subsetores. Esta versão do modelo de salário eficiência assume a existência de uma relação negativa entre salários e supervisão. A investigação empírica está centrada sobre a variável span of control (razão supervisores/ supervisionados) como proxy para intensidade de supervisão. Os dados utilizados para o teste de hipótese desta teoria são os da Relação Anual de Informações Sociais para os anos de 2012 e 2013. Como novidade em relação aos trabalhos anteriores, utilizamos os dados da RAIS em uma estrutura de painel de indivíduos para o período, controlando tanto os possíveis vieses de variável omitida (efeito fixo) como o de simultaneidade (span of control), bem como os dados referentes aos subsetores que constituem o setor da construção civil (construção de edifícios, obras de infraestrutura e serviços especializados para construção). Conclui-se que a hipótese de salário eficiência é corroborada pelos dados tanto para o setor como um todo como para seus subsetores. / The objective of this dissertation is to test the efficiency wage model (shirking version) to Brazilian civil construction industry and its subsectors. This version of the efficiency wage model defends the existence of a negative relationship between wages and supervision. The empirical research is focused on the variable span of control (ratio supervisors /staff) as a proxy for supervision intensity. The data used are from "Relação Anual de Informações Sociais" for the years of 2012 and 2013. As an innovation compared to previous work, we use data from the RAIS in a panel structure for individuals period, controlling the possible boas of omitted variable (fixed effect) and also the simultaneity (Instrumental Variable) as well as data relating to subsectors that constitute the construction industry (building construction, infrastructure works and specialized services for construction). It is concluded that the hypothesis of efficiency wage is supported by the data both for the sector as a whole and for its subsectors.

O objetivo desta dissertação é testar o modelo de salário eficiência (shirking model) para a indústria brasileira de construção civil e seus subsetores. Esta versão do modelo de salário eficiência assume a existência de uma relação negativa entre salários e supervisão. A investigação empírica está centrada sobre a variável span of control (razão supervisores/ supervisionados) como proxy para intensidade de supervisão. Os dados utilizados para o teste de hipótese desta teoria são os da Relação Anual de Informações Sociais para os anos de 2012 e 2013. Como novidade em relação aos trabalhos anteriores, utilizamos os dados da RAIS em uma estrutura de painel de indivíduos para o período, controlando tanto os possíveis vieses de variável omitida (efeito fixo) como o de simultaneidade (span of control), bem como os dados referentes aos subsetores que constituem o setor da construção civil (construção de edifícios, obras de infraestrutura e serviços especializados para construção). Conclui-se que a hipótese de salário eficiência é corroborada pelos dados tanto para o setor como um todo como para seus subsetores. / The objective of this dissertation is to test the efficiency wage model (shirking version) to Brazilian civil construction industry and its subsectors. This version of the efficiency wage model defends the existence of a negative relationship between wages and supervision. The empirical research is focused on the variable span of control (ratio supervisors /staff) as a proxy for supervision intensity. The data used are from "Relação Anual de Informações Sociais" for the years of 2012 and 2013. As an innovation compared to previous work, we use data from the RAIS in a panel structure for individuals period, controlling the possible boas of omitted variable (fixed effect) and also the simultaneity (Instrumental Variable) as well as data relating to subsectors that constitute the construction industry (building construction, infrastructure works and specialized services for construction). It is concluded that the hypothesis of efficiency wage is supported by the data both for the sector as a whole and for its subsectors.

Comparisons of raw span (i.e., number of staff who report directly to a manager) within and across organizations can misrepresent managerial capacity to support staff because managers may not allocate the same amount of time to staff contact. The purpose was to examine the influence of alternative measures of managerial span on nurse satisfaction with manager’s supervision and on multidisciplinary teamwork. The alternative measures were (a) raw span as a measure of reporting structure and (b) time in staff contact as a measure of closeness of contact by the manager. The main effects of the alternative measures, leadership, hours of operation, and other covariates on outcomes were examined. The interaction effects of the alternative measures with leadership and hours of operation were investigated. The study framework was based on Open System Theory and the boundary spanning functions of managers. A descriptive, correlational design was used to collect survey and administrative data from employees, managers, and organizations. Managerial time allocation data were collected through self-logging and validated through observation. Acute care hospitals were selected through purposive sampling. For supervision satisfaction, the final sample size was 31 first-line managers and 558 nurses. For teamwork, the final sample size was 30 first-line managers and 754 staff. The Leadership Practices Inventory, the Satisfaction with my Supervisor Scale, and the Relational Coordination Scale were used. Hierarchical linear modeling was the main type of analysis conducted. Raw span interacted with leadership and hours of operation to explain supervision satisfaction. Teamwork was explained by leadership, clinical support roles, hours of operation, total areas, and non-direct reports, but not by raw span or time in staff contact. Large acute care hospitals can improve satisfaction with supervision and teamwork by modifying first-line management positions.

Comparisons of raw span (i.e., number of staff who report directly to a manager) within and across organizations can misrepresent managerial capacity to support staff because managers may not allocate the same amount of time to staff contact. The purpose was to examine the influence of alternative measures of managerial span on nurse satisfaction with manager’s supervision and on multidisciplinary teamwork. The alternative measures were (a) raw span as a measure of reporting structure and (b) time in staff contact as a measure of closeness of contact by the manager. The main effects of the alternative measures, leadership, hours of operation, and other covariates on outcomes were examined. The interaction effects of the alternative measures with leadership and hours of operation were investigated. The study framework was based on Open System Theory and the boundary spanning functions of managers. A descriptive, correlational design was used to collect survey and administrative data from employees, managers, and organizations. Managerial time allocation data were collected through self-logging and validated through observation. Acute care hospitals were selected through purposive sampling. For supervision satisfaction, the final sample size was 31 first-line managers and 558 nurses. For teamwork, the final sample size was 30 first-line managers and 754 staff. The Leadership Practices Inventory, the Satisfaction with my Supervisor Scale, and the Relational Coordination Scale were used. Hierarchical linear modeling was the main type of analysis conducted. Raw span interacted with leadership and hours of operation to explain supervision satisfaction. Teamwork was explained by leadership, clinical support roles, hours of operation, total areas, and non-direct reports, but not by raw span or time in staff contact. Large acute care hospitals can improve satisfaction with supervision and teamwork by modifying first-line management positions.

The current study seeks to examine the relationships between perceptions of employee empowerment and perceptions of leadership, span of control, and industry type. Participants were gathered from an archival source employing a high school alumni e-mail group (n = 361) and a survey from 9 organizations (n = 647) and combined into a larger sample (n = 1008). The participants took Bodner's (2005) Assessment of Employee Empowerment and Assessment of Empowering Leadership instruments. Support was found to suggest that people report being less empowered than they believe that top management would report about them. Also, participants reported that their leader was less empowering than they believed top management would report about the leader. Span of control was found to impact perceptions of empowerment. Production workers reported feeling more empowered than workers in service industries. Participants did not report that leaders were more empowering if they were higher in the hierarchy (executive) than lower levels (coach, employee). Also, a respondent's position did not affect the relationship between job type and feelings of empowerment. This study suggests that the organizational design (span of control) and industry type may affect empowerment initiatives, while lower levels of the organization may view empowerment much differently than top management.

The study is based on a human science perspective in which we are interested in the school as a workplace for adults and work with personnel issues. The aim is to contribute with new knowledge about what conditions an employee considers important to carry out their work, and employees' experiences of working in large personnel groups. We have made a case study in a Swedish local primary school for students in lower ages, with between 60-70 employees. We conducted nine semi- structured interviews with a hand-picked selection of employees from different occupational groups in the school. The study is empirical data -driven qualitative with abductive approach. To analyze the collected datamaterial, we have used the empirical data -driven thematic analysis. From the results of the study some aspects appear clearly; employees need to be seen by his/her boss, importance of employee autonomy and employee experience of stress. Some employees feel to a greater extent than others that they are seen by their boss and have the opportunity to influence their work situation. This appears to be linked to the type of relationship the employee has to school management.

Bakgrunden till denna studie är den tilltagande svenska psykosociala ohälsan där stress är en huvudsaklig faktor. Stress förekommer när det finns en obalans mellan individers resurser samt upplevda krav. Vid hög arbetsbelastning kan socialt stöd vara avgörande för hur individer förmår att hantera kraven, tillgång till detta sociala stöd är dock ofta en bristvara. Forskning har tidigare fokuserat på undersökning samt förbättring av medarbetares arbetsmiljö, detta trots att just chefers välmående är centralt för att skapa välfungerande och hållbara arbetsplatser. En specifikt utsatt yrkesgrupp är enhetschefer inom äldreomsorgen och tidigare studier visar att majoriteten av dessa upplever negativa hälsoeffekter såsom hjärtklappning, sömnproblem samt högt blodtryck. Detta leder sammantaget fram till följande problemformulering: Hur kan enhetschefers upplevelse av socialt stöd förstås och hur inverkar detta på att upprätthålla ett hållbart arbetsliv? Syfte med föreliggande studie är att undersöka enhetschefers individuella upplevelse av arbetsrelaterat socialt stöd samt vilken inverkan det har på att upprätthålla ett hållbart arbetsliv. För att utreda detta har enhetschefers tillgång och behov av socialt stöd samt dess relation till kontrollspann att studeras. Föreliggande studie har en kvalitativ ansats och resultatet har samlats in genom tio semistrukturerade intervjuer med enhetschefer inom äldreomsorgen. Studiens empiri visar att respondenterna upplever en ansträngd arbetsbörda vilket leder till ett ytterligare behov av praktiskt socialt stöd. Gällande känslomässigt socialt stöd råder delade meningar då hälften av respondenterna inte ser sig ha något större behov av detta stöd. Vidare upplever respondenterna att den huvudsakliga faktorn till tidsbrist inte är relaterad till kontrollspannet, det vill säga antal medarbetare de ansvarar för. Faktorer som istället nämns som anledning till detta är ett splittrat verksamhetsområde, sidouppdrag samt arbetsgruppens självständighet. Studiens empiriska resultat visar att viktiga begrepp gällande socialt stöd och ett hållbart arbetsliv är närhet och tid. Socialt stöd krävs i närtid till upplevt behov och avstånd avgör vilka källor enhetscheferna vänder sig till för stöd. Studien slutsats visar att upplevelsen av socialt stöd är avgörande för att enhetschefer ska upprätthålla ett hållbart arbetsliv. Vidare är det vetskapen om att socialt stöd finns tillgängligt som är avgörande snarare än användning av det faktiska stödet. / The background to this study is the increase of psychosocial illness in Sweden, where stress is a major factor. Stress occurs when there is an imbalance between the individual's resources and perceived requirements. At high workloads, social support can be critical to how individuals handles the requirements, however access to this social support is often a shortcoming. Research has previously focused on analysis and improvement of subordinates working environment, despite the fact that the well-being of the managers is central to creating wellfunctioning and sustainable workplaces. A particular and exposed occupational group is head of elderly care unit's and previous studies show that the majority experience negative health effects such as palpitation, sleep problems and high blood pressure. This leads to the following problem that is set for the study: How can head of elderly care unit's experience of social support be understood and what is the effect on maintaining a sustainable working life? The purpose of this study is to examine head of elderly care unit's experience of work-related social support. To examine this, head of elderly care unit's access to and need for social support as well as the relationship with the span of control, will be studied. The present study has a qualitative approach and the results have been collected through ten semi-structured interviews with head of elderly care unit's. The empirical study shows that respondents are experiencing an strained workload which leads to an additional need for practical support. Regarding emotional support there are shared opinions, as half of respondents do not consider themselves in a greater need of this support. In addition, respondents find that a major factor in time shortage is not related to the span of control. Factors mentioned instead are a fragmented area of business, side assignments and the independence of the working group. The empirical study also shows that important concepts regarding social support and sustainable working life are physical closeness and time. Social support is required in the near future to perceived needs and distance determines what sources to address for support. The conclusion of the study shows that the experience of social support is critical for head of elderly care unit's to maintain a sustainable working life. Furthermore, knowing that the support is available is crucial rather than using the actual support.