The development of Watershed Management Plans (WMPs) in urban areas aids municipalities in allocating resources, engaging the public and stakeholders, addressing water quality regulations, and mitigating issues related to stormwater runoff and flooding. In this study, 63 urban WMPs across the nation were reviewed to characterize historical approaches and identify emerging trends in watershed planning. Planning methods and tools were qualitatively evaluated, followed by statistical analyses to identify correlations between planning factors. Plans developed by a municipality or consultant were correlated to higher occurrences of hydrologic modeling and site-specific recommendations, and lower occurrences of characterizing social watershed factors. Trends in the use and selection of hydrologic, hydraulic, and pollutant load models were identified, specifically in the past decade. Project prioritization was found to increasingly focus on feasibility in implementation. Additional qualitative trends identified include an increased focus on water quality and interdisciplinary studies, public participation, responsiveness to water quality regulations, and risk aversion. The study concludes by envisioning future watershed planning trends. This state of the practice review of planning efforts, innovation in implementation, and the adoption of emergent technologies will aid future planners in employing current tools and strategies in the development of new WMPs. / Master of Science / Watershed-based management has long been used as the preferred approach for protection of water resources at a hydrologic, ecological, and social level. The development of Watershed Management Plans (WMPs) in urban areas aids municipalities in allocating resources, engaging the public and stakeholders, addressing water quality regulations, and mitigating issues related to stormwater runoff and flooding. The processes and tools used in watershed management planning are ever-evolving based on improved technologies, changing regulations, and social trends. In this study, 63 urban WMPs across the nation were reviewed to characterize historical approaches as well as identify emerging trends in watershed planning. Planning methods, tools of analysis, and recommended strategies were qualitatively evaluated to determine trends in the planning process, followed by statistical analyses to identify correlations between planning factors and methodologies. Plans developed by a municipality or consultant were correlated to higher occurrences of hydrologic modeling and site-specific recommendations, and lower occurrences of characterizing social watershed factors. Trends in the use and selection of hydrologic, hydraulic, and pollutant load models were identified, specifically in the past decade. Project prioritization was found to increasingly focus on feasibility in implementation. Other qualitative trends identified include an increased focus on water quality and interdisciplinary studies, public participation, responsiveness to water quality regulations, and risk aversion. The study concludes by envisioning future watershed planning trends. This state of the practice review of planning efforts, innovation in implementation, and the adoption of emergent technologies will aid future planners in employing current tools and strategies in the development of new WMPs.

The reduced capacity of antibiotics to treat infections is one of the greatest health concerns that society faces. There is substantial evidence that links this reduced capacity with the widespread use of antibiotics in livestock production. Livestock can act as reservoirs of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) and antibiotic resistant bacteria, which can pass resistance on in the livestock's manure. It is important to understand the fate of antibiotic resistance genes and resistant bacteria in the environment after land-application of manure-based amendments. The goal of this field-scale study was to identify the effects of soil amendments (inorganic fertilizer, compost, or raw manure) and crop cover (lettuce or radish) on sediment transfer, fecal indicator bacteria (FIB), and release of ARGs in runoff over six storm events. Two FIB (Escherichia coli and enterococci) and two ARGs (sulI and ermB) were quantified in runoff from each of the constructed plots throughout the growing season. FIB and ARGs were recovered from all plots, including control plots indicating a background level within the soil. Additionally, only the effects of variability among individual storms had an impact on the concentration of FIB in runoff. Vegetative cover and storm variability affected sediment release. A trend of higher sul1 and ermB in runoff from compost and raw manure-amended plots for at least 2 months after planting crops was observed. Only one of these ARGs (ermB) is associated with the class of drugs given to the dairy cows used for the manure and compost, indicating inherent carriage of some ARGs independent of the type of antibiotic administered, and such genes can persist in the environment. These results suggest that there is a risk of ARGs being carried into areas downgradient from agricultural plots that have been amended with compost or manure. / MS / Millions of kilograms of antibiotics are used in livestock production each year in the United States, causing concern that such widespread antibiotic use could be contributing to a decrease in effectiveness of antibiotics for treating illness in humans. The purpose of this study is to understand how antibiotic resistance might be transferred from livestock to manure into the environment and ultimately to people. This field-scale study tested the effect of soil amendment (chemical fertilizer, compost, or manure) and crop cover (lettuce or radish) on the release of fecal indicator bacteria (Escherichia coli and enterococci), sediment, and antibiotic resistance genes (sul1 and ermB) in runoff coming from agricultural plots. In part, this study helped evaluate recent US Food and Drug Administration, Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA) criteria for composting to reduce pathogenic bacteria when using manure-derived soil amendment to grow food for human consumption. This study found that fecal indicator bacteria and antibiotic resistance genes were recovered in runoff from all soil amendment and vegetable types. However, there were higher levels of antibiotic resistance genes recovered in runoff from compost and manure amended soils than from fertilizer control or unamended plots during the growing season. This suggests that composting may not be effective for reducing or removing the genes that encode antibiotic resistance in runoff.

The McMillan sand filtration plant in Washington, D.C. is a significant industrial landscape that provided safe clean water to much of the capital during 1905-1985. At the outset, the McMillan Commission chose to make the plant and adjacent McMillan reservoir part of the park system it was mapping for Washington. Frederick Law Olmsted Jr. was appointed to landscape the tract, a task completed in 1920. Closed to the public since WWII, the site was abandoned when its operation ended. This thesis looks at its future by exploring the thickness of landscape and the site's discovered geometry. Peeling back its uniformly level 25-acre surface broken only twice by rows of concrete towers, its horizontal layers, vertical elements and strong grids are revealed, offering clues for new design strategies. Examples of how landscape geometries have been considered and works of landscape built elsewhere are reviewed. Recalling water's historically central role in the site, the latter's potential for demonstrating responsible stormwater management and other sustainable practices is emphasized. Local stakeholder interests and proven ingredients of successful urban parks are noted. A design process is outlined that exploits the earlier exploratory findings to reconcile the transition between old and new, deciding what to remove and what to add. Details are provided on the resulting new "memorial park" that both celebrates its history and responds to contemporary interests and needs of the 21st century urban landscape. / Master of Landscape Architecture

A widely used roadway runoff best management practice (BMP) used in Florida is an ex.filtration trench. Traditionally, exfiltration trenches are constructed without any filtration media. Therefore, the potential for groundwater contamination by the roadway runoff exists. Roadway runoff contains metals and nutrient pollutants. Nitrogen and Phosphorus are the most common nutrients causing impacts to receiving waters. To reduce the impact these pollutants will have on groundwater quality, Black and Gold™ media, which mainly consists of tire crumb, is evaluated. The Black and Gold™ media was found to be a good filtration media for removal of total nitrogen and nitrate + nitrite. It was found that all of the wells had experienced total nitrogen removal. These reductions ranged from 32% to 56%. The nitrate + nitrite reduction was experienced in the four wells. These reductions ranged from 4 7% to 88% in the three wells. The ortho-phosphorous and total phosphorus concentrations did not change significantly. Also, the metals concentrations did not change significantly.During the post sampling period, the turbidity of the groundwater increased. This was experienced in three of the four wells.

Urban development significantly increases water temperatures within watersheds, primarily from the construction of impervious surfaces for buildings and pavement. While thermally enriched runoff can be harmful to aquatic life, available research and guidance on predicting these effects is limited. The goal of this assessment is to provide guidance on how to achieve necessary temperature regimes that meet aquatic health criteria for sensitive species such as trout. To address this need, the Minnesota Urban Heat Export Tool (MINUHET) and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) models were utilized to simulate hourly streamflow, water temperature, and heat flux in an urban watershed in Blacksburg, VA for typical summer periods using continuous-based simulation. SWMM and MINUHET were combined in a unique, hybrid approach that emphasized each model's strengths, i.e., SWMM for runoff and streamflow, and MINUHET for water temperature. The watershed is 14.1 km², and is portion of Stroubles Creek located near downtown Blackburg, Virginia and the main campus of Virginia Tech. Streamflow, water temperature, and climate data were acquired from Virginia Tech StREAM Lab (Stream Research, Education, and Management) monitoring stations. SWMM and MINUHET were calibrated manually for the summers of 2016, and were validated for the summer of 2015. Model sensitivity analyses revealed that simulations were especially sensitive to imperviousness (SWMM predicted streamflow as outputs) and dew point temperature (MINUHET predicted water temperatures as outputs), both resulted in increased outputs of SWMM and MINUHET models, respectively. Model performance in simulating streamflow was evaluated using Nash-Sutcliffe Efficiency (NSE) and correlation (R²). NSE and R² values were 0.65 and 0.7 for the SWMM Model and 0.57 and 0.55 for the MINUHET model during the validation period, indicating that SWMM performed better than MINUHET in streamflow simulation. Streamflow temperatures were simulated using MINUHET with a NSE and R² statistical values of 0.58, and 0.83, respectively, demonstrating a satisfactory simulation of water temperature. Heat loads were simulated using the MINUHET and Hybrid models, demonstrating less Percent BIAS of the Hybrid approach in simulation of watershed total heat load than MINUHET alone. Furthermore, a number of practices were implemented to reduce thermal loading within a watershed. These included infiltration practices, methods for decreasing absorption of thermal energy primarily by reducing albedo, and increased vegetation canopies. An index titled Percentage of Time Temperature Exceeded 21°C Threshold (PTTET) for trout habitat was used to represent the effectiveness of thermal mitigation practices. Installing concrete pavement (thermal diffusivity: 15×10-7 m²/s, pavement thickness: 0.20 m, and heat capacity: 4.0×106 J/m³⋅°C) and Acrylic Coated Galvalume (ACG) roofs for all pavement and roofs, respectively, in the watershed reduced heat load by 45%, and the PTTET index declined 4.5%. Installing bioretention with 61 cm of media thickness, and soil-media infiltration rate of 25 mm/hr. for 53 selected parking lots in the watershed, resulted in 11.1% reduction in watershed heat load and 1.4% reduction in PTTET. Planting forest canopies for the entire pervious area of the watershed, sufficient to shade 90% of all lands, resulted in reduction in heat load by 24% and PTTET by 4.6%. / Master of Science / Development within urbanized regions increase impervious surfaces, which further cause significant storm events in watersheds. The increased impervious surfaces result in hotter stormwater particularly during hot summers, which has diverse effects on aquatic health of downstream receiving streams. The main objective of the current study is to evaluate the thermal impact of urbanization on aquatic health habitats in Stroubles Creek Watershed, Blacksburg, Virginia. To aim this goal and achieve the thermal evaluation of the highly urbanized Stroubles Creek Watershed, a U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) and a Minnesota Urban Heat Export Tool (MINUHET) models from scratch of the Stroubles Creek watershed, using Town of Blacksburg and Virginia Tech Physical Facility information were developed. This necessitated combining information from a wide variety of sources, including geologic maps, geodatabases, hydraulic models, computer-aided design (CAD) files, and scanned as-built information. In addition to the models, a hybrid model was developed that combines SWMM and MINHET outputs. The temperatures and heat loads at the downstream of the watershed were predicted using SWMM, MINUHET, and Hybrid models for two summer periods of 2016 and 2015, and the predicted temperature were compared to the criteria for survival of aquatic health such as trout. Furthermore, a number of thermal mitigation strategies such as bioretentions systems, concrete pavements (which has lighter color compared to asphalt pavements), and increased vegetation canopies were simulated within the MINUHET and SWMM models configurations to reduce simulated temperatures and heat loads at the watershed scale. The simulated temperatures and heat loads represented that concrete pavements results in better performance of thermal mitigation within watersheds than bioretention systems, and increased vegetation canopies.

Federal, state and local governments are increasingly focused on the effects of development on water quality and quantity. With waterbodies being especially sensitive to certain pollutants, such as sediment and nutrients, regulations have been put in place to control the amount of pollutant that gets discharged. Sediment is a cause for concern as it originates during both rural and urban activities, and often carries other pollutants (metals, nutrients, etc.) with it. Existing erosion models focus primarily on estimating erosion from agricultural watersheds. Methods are needed to predict areas with high erosive potential (EP) in urban watersheds. Highlighting highly erosive areas in urbanized watersheds allows for the prioritization of maintenance and installation of Stormwater Control Measures (SCMs), and monitoring of sediment by municipal planners and engineers. This study utilizes commonly available geospatial layers in conjunction with a computational procedure to compute relative EP risk throughout a target urban watershed. A case study of the developed methodology was performed on a watershed in Blacksburg, VA, to generate EP risk maps. Results of the study indicate areas of erosive potential within the target watershed and provide a methodology for creating erosion potential risk maps for use by municipal planners and engineers / Master of Science / Federal, state and local governments are increasingly focused on the effects of development on water quality and quantity. With waterbodies being especially sensitive to certain pollutants, such as sediment and nutrients, regulations have been put in place to control the amount of pollutant that gets discharged. Sediment is a cause for concern as it originates during both rural and urban activities, and often carries other pollutants (metals, nutrients, etc.) with it. Existing erosion models focus primarily on estimating erosion from agricultural watersheds. Methods are needed to predict areas with high erosive potential (EP) in urban watersheds. Highlighting highly erosive areas in urbanized watersheds allows for the prioritization of maintenance and installation of Stormwater Control Measures (SCMs), and monitoring of sediment by municipal planners and engineers. This study utilizes commonly available geospatial layers in conjunction with a computational procedure to compute relative EP risk throughout a target urban watershed. A case study of the developed methodology was performed on a watershed in Blacksburg, VA, to generate EP risk maps. Results of the study indicate areas of erosive potential within the target watershed and provide a methodology for creating erosion potential risk maps for use by municipal planners and engineers.

Syfte: I dagens läge byggs nya dagvattendammar för att magasinera dagvatten som överbelastar dagvattenledningssystemen och de befintliga dagvattendammarna förblir utan översyn. Eftersom klimatförändringar bidrar till att femårsregn kommer i en högre frekvens ökar flödet av dagvatten och orsakar att allt fler dagvattendammar kommer att bli underdimensionerade. För att bevara samhällsfunktioner utreds en generell arbetsprocess hur kommuner kan undersöka och bevara befintliga dagvattendammar. Metod: Metoderna som används är intervju, fallstudie och litteraturstudie. Intervju bidrar till att lösningar och förslag av undersökningsmetoder och åtgärdsförslag samlas in. Fallstudien utfördes på tre olika dagvattendammar och undersöker vilka undersökningsmetoder som kan användas. Att samla empiri i ett praktiskt fall bör bidra till att utredningens trovärdighet förstärks. De metoderna som användes i fallstudien är beräkningar, sedimentprovtagning och dokumentanalys från underlag av befintliga dagvattendammar. Med hjälp av litteraturstudie analyseras utredningens empiri med andra källor för att kontrollera empirins tillförlitlighet. Resultat: Ett flertal undersökningsmetoder och åtgärdsförslag analyserades. Tre undersökningsmetoder som passade en generell arbetsprocess var: flödesproportionell provtagning, sedimentprovtagning och dagvattenberäkningar med dagvattenmodellen Stormtac. Åtgärdsförslag som passade var: byggnation av en vall runt dammen för att utöka magasineringen, plantering av växter som tar upp näringsämnen och tungmetaller bundna i dagvattnet, utnyttja dagvattendammens form där dagvattendammens hydrauliska effektivitet utnyttjas maximalt samt anlägga fördamm med en makadamvall med vattenlevande växter. Konsekvenser: Flödesproportionell provtagning var tillförlitlig undersökningsmetod enligt intervju och litteraturstudie. Sedimentprovtagning av sediment i botten av inoch utlopp går att nyttjas i en generell arbetsprocess, men vissa föroreningshalter kan vara missvisande beroende på hur detaljerat sedimentprovtagningen görs. Dagvattenmodellen Stormtac och dess beräkningar kan nyttjas i en generell arbetsprocess eftersom Svenskt Vatten P110 (2016) bekräftar modellens beräkningar. Åtgärdsförslagen testades inte i verkliga fall, men effekten bekräftades i intervjun och litteraturstudien. Ett förslag på generell arbetsprocess kunde sammanställas. Stickprovstagning passar sämre in i en generell arbetsprocess. Begränsningar: Fallstudien har begränsats genom att utreda två metoder, varav den ena är dagvattenmodellen Stormtac och den andra är sedimentprovtagning. Utvalda föroreningar som tungmetaller, olja, kväve och fosfor analyseras. Studien avgränsas från att analysera hur recipienter påverkas av de befintliga dagvattendammar som studerats. / Purpose: At present are new stormwater ponds constructed to store stormwater which overloads stormwater pipe systems while existing stormwater ponds remains without overhaul. Since climate changes contributes to five-year rain in a higher frequency, which increases the flow of stormwater and causing more stormwater ponds to be undersized. In order to preserve social functions, are a general work process investigated of how municipalities can investigate and preserve their existing stormwater ponds. Method: The methods that are used are interviews, case study and literature study. The interviews contribute to solutions and proposals of investigation methods and proposals for action. The case study were performed in three stormwater ponds and examines the investigation methods that can be used. Collecting empirical data in a practical case, should increase the investigation’s credibility. The methods used in the case study are calculations, sediment sampling and document analysis of the basis of existing stormwater. Using literature study are the empirical data of the investigation analyzed with other sources to check the reliability of the empirical data. Findings: Several methods of investigations and action proposals were analyzed. Three investigation methods which fit a general work process were: flow proportional sampling, sediment sampling and stormwater calculations through the stormwater model Stormtac. The proposals for action which suited a general work process were: construction of a trench around the pond to expand the storage area, planting plants that take up nutrients and heavy metals tied up in stormwater, exploit the stormwater ponds shape where the hydraulic efficiency are exploited flat out by placing the inlet and outlet on opposite ends, and building trenches with a gravel embankment with aquatic plants. Implications: Flow proportional sampling were a reliable investigation method according to interview and literature study. Sediment sampling of sediment in bottom of in- and outlet can be used in a general work process, but certain contamination levels can be misleading depending on how detailed sediment samplings are done. Stormwater model Stormtac and its calculations can be used in a general workprocess because publication Svenskt Vatten P110 (2016) are confirming the models calculations. The proposals for action were not tested in real cases, but the effect was confirmed in the interview and literature study. Limitations: The case study was limited by investigating two methods, one of which is stormwater model Stormtac and sediment sampling. Selected contaminants such as heavy metals, oil, nitrogen and phosphorus are analysed. The study is delimitated by analyzing how recipients are affected by the studied existing stormwater ponds.

The impervious surfaces of built landscapes create stormwater runoff that causes water quantity and quality problems downstream, upsetting natural hydrology and harming aquatic ecosystems. Green stormwater infrastructure (GSI) includes practices that reduce the amount of stormwater runoff and the pollutants it carries utilizing plants, soils, and other materials to capture, store, reuse, infiltrate, evapotranspire, and filter stormwater. GSI helps to restore developed landscapes, mimicking natural hydrologic processes and providing important water treatment functions as well as beneficial green spaces in urban areas. However, there are many challenges associated with the implementation and maintenance of GSI in our communities and cultures. This research explores the human side of implementing GSI, investigating current maintenance capacities in rural and urban settings, and exploring multifunctional benefits of GSI to provide both biophysical and cultural ecosystem services (CES). Research goals include characterizing the current state of GSI implementation and maintenance in municipalities in the State of Vermont (USA) and eliciting lessons that can inform GSI design practices and policies. Multifunctional GSI design objectives that provide and enhance CES are described, revealing opportunities to instill values and a sense of stewardship for the health wellbeing of people and ecosystems. The first chapter provides relevant topical background to set the stage for the latter two chapters. The second chapter analyzes results from a survey of municipal officials in Vermont that occurred as part of NSF-EPSCoR-funded Basin Resilience to Extreme Events project research on stormwater management. The survey included questions about GSI and maintenance practices in place and perceptions of visual appeal and ability to maintain bioretention systems shown in landscape visualizations. Results show that visual appeal and perceived maintainability of vegetated bioretention practices do not appear to be significant barriers to adoption and operation, but stormwater policy and funding are shown to be both significant barriers and solutions to implementing and maintaining GSI in Vermont municipalities. Additionally, urban and rural towns provide very different contexts for implementing and maintaining GSI in Vermont and characteristics of development patterns and maintenance capacity should be considered in policy, regulations, outreach, and education. The third chapter offers a literature review, guided by a CES framework, of design elements that can be included in GSI to create multifunctional urban green spaces. CES categories of aesthetic, recreation, education, sense of place, social capital, and stewardship benefits framed a set of design elements, principles, practices, and documented benefits to guide multifunctional design of GSI. Findings include the importance of participatory processes to elicit diverse landscape values, visible water pathways, biodiversity, spaces for creative use, accessibility, interaction with water, interpretive signage, and artful and biophilic design features to enhance feelings of preference, pleasure, relaxation, learning, connection, and inclusion. The health and wellbeing of water and people must be integrated into the design of GSI for cities to be ecologically functional and culturally meaningful to their populations.

Regnvatten, smältvatten och spolvatten som rinner av från hårdgjorda ytor kallas dagvatten. Dagvatten är ofta förorenat av tungmetaller eller svårnedbrytbara organiska ämnen, som kan göra stor skada om vattnet inte renas innan det når recipienten. I dagsläget finns det inga nationellt fastslagna riktvärden för föroreningshalter i dagvatten. Dagvattengruppen på Vattenfall AB Värme Uppsala har tillsammans med miljökontoret i Uppsala tagit fram riktvärden för föroreningshalter från kvarteret Brännugnen, som området som studerats i detta examensarbete kallas. Vattenfall har idag problem med att klara dessa riktvärden för bland annat metaller i en del av kvarterets dagvattenbrunnar. För att reducera utsläppet av föroreningar till dagvattennätet från kvarteret Brännugnen har därför denna dagvattenutredning genomförts. Genom platsundersökningar och provtagning på dagvattnet i sex punkter har källor till föroreningar identifierats. Förslag på åtgärder har tagits fram genom litteraturstudier, platsundersökningar och samtal och diskussioner med erfaren personal. Studien har också resulterat i förslag på en förbättrad provtagningsstrategi som ger en mer korrekt bild av utsläppta mängder föroreningar per år. Målsättningen var att den nya provtagningsstrategin skulle vara mer kostnadseffektiv vilket uppnåddes. I dagvattenstudien undersöktes också om rening sker i det underjordiska magasin som dagvattnet från halva kvarteret Brännugnen leds till. Resultatet visade att ingen rening sker i magasinet, då uppehållstiden är för kort för att partiklar ska hinna sedimentera. Förutom vatten från regn- och snösmältning kommer även kondensat och processvatten till dagvattennätet från kvarteret Brännugnen. Ett av målen i utredningen var att undersöka hur mycket kondensatet bidrar till den utsläppta mängden metaller. Provtagning av kondensat och dagvatten visade tillsammans med flödesberäkningar att kondensatet har en stor påverkan på hur stor mängd förorening som släpps ut per år. Riktvärden studerades också i denna dagvattenutredning, slutsatsen är att de riktvärden som Vattenfall förhåller sig till i dag är låga. Både schablonhalterna för värmeverk och vägdagvatten samt analysresultat av dagvatten från vägen utanför området överskrider Vattenfalls riktvärden för dagvatten. Slutligen skulle dagvattenstudien resultera i förslag på framtida åtgärder för rening av dagvattnet från kvarteret Brännugnen i form av tekniska lösningar. Avsättningsmagasin under mark och filteranläggning är två lösningar som är lämpliga för rening av dagvattnet med hänsyn till föroreningar och flöden. Kostnaden beror mycket på vilket flöde som blir dimensionerande. / Stormwater is rain and snow melt that runs off from hard surfaces. Stormwater is often polluted with heavy metals and organic pollutants, which can cause great damage if the water is not treated before it reaches the recipient. There are no national guidelines for threshold values of pollutants in stormwater. The stormwater group at Vattenfall AB Heat Uppsala and the environmental department at Uppsala municipality have together established threshold values for pollutants in the stormwater from the area Brännugnen, which is the name of the investigated area. Vattenfall has difficulties to keep the concentration of pollutants in the stormwater below the threshold values. To reduce the content of contaminants in the stormwater from the area Brännugnen this study was therefore carried out. Through site investigations and sampling of stormwater in six measuring points, sources of the contaminants were identified. Through literature studies, site investigations and discussions with experienced personnel, propositions of actions to avoid contamination of the stormwater have been developed. The stormwater study has also led to suggestion of an improved sampling strategy which better represents the amount of contaminants in the stormwater and is more cost-effective. The study included an investigation with the purpose to find out if the magazine that the stormwater from half of the area runs to have the capacity to reduce the contaminants. The results showed no reduction of contaminants. The reason is that the residence time is too short for the particles to have time to settle. In the study the contribution from condensate to the total amount of emitted metals in the stormwater was investigated. The condensate passes a treatment plant for purification before being discharged to the stormwater pipes. The result shows that the condensate has a large impact on the amount of emitted metals per year. Threshold values and standard values for stormwater was also studied, the conclusion is that the threshold values for the stormwater from the area Brännugnen are low. Both standard values for stormwater from thermal power stations and roads are higher than the threshold values. The results from the analyses of stormwater from the road outside the area Brännugnen also show higher concentrations of metals than the threshold values. Finally the stormwater study resulted in suggestions of technical solutions for future treatment of the stormwater from the area Brännugnen. An underground sedimentation magazine and a filter system are two treatment processes that can be used for removal of pollutants in the stormwater from the area Brännugnen.

The aim of this thesis is to examine and develop new techniques in stormwater Best Management Practices (BMP) for nutrient and erosion reduction and monitoring by incorporation of low impact green technologies and sensor networks. Previous research has found excessive nutrient loading of nitrogen and phosphorus species from urban stormwater runoff can lead to ecological degradation and eutrophication of receiving lakes and rivers (Fareed and Abid, 2005). In response, the Florida Department of Environmental Protection (FDEP) has set forth reduction goals as established in Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) reports to reduce nutrient loading and restore, or maintain, Florida water bodies to reasonable conditions. Often times current stormwater management practices are not sufficient to attain these goals and further improvements in system design are required. In order to reach these goals, affordable technologies designed for both nutrient reduction and monitoring of system performance to deepen and improve our understanding of stormwater processes are required. Firstly this thesis examines the performance of three types of continuous-cycle Media Bed Reactors (MBRs) using Bio-activated Adsorptive Media (BAM) for nutrient reduction in three retention ponds located throughout the Central Florida region. Chapter 2 examines the use of a Sloped and Horizontal MBRs arranged in a baffling configuration, whereas Chapter 3 examines the field performance of a Floating MBR arranged in an upflow configuration. Each MBR was analyzed for performance in reducing total phosphorus, soluble reactive phosphorus, total nitrogen, organic nitrogen, ammonia, nitrates + nitrites, turbidity and chlorophyll a species as measured from the influent to effluent ends of the MBR. The results of the experiments indicate that MBRs may be combined with retention ponds to provide "green technology" alternatives for inter-event treatment of nutrient species in urban stormwater runoff by use of recyclable sorption media and solar powered submersible pumps. Secondly the thesis focusses on three new devices for BMP monitoring which may be integrated into wireless networks, including a Groundwater Variable Probe (GVP) for velocity, hydraulic conductivity and dispersion measurements in a retention pond bank (Chapter 4), an affordable Wireless Automated Sampling Network (WASN) for sampling and analysis of nutrient flux gradients in retention ponds (Chapter 5), and finally an Arc-Type Automated Pulse Tracer Velocimeter (APTV) for low velocity and direction surface water measurements in retention ponds and constructed wetlands (Chapter 6). The GVP was integrated with other environmental sensing probes to create a remote sensing station, capable of real-time data analysis of sub-surface conditions including soil moisture, water table stage. Such abilities, when synced with user control capabilities, may help to increase methods of monitoring for applications including erosion control, bank stability predictions, monitoring of groundwater pollutant plume migration, and establishing hydraulic residence times through subsurface BMPs such as permeable reactive barriers. Advancement of this technology may be used by establishing additional sub-stations, thereby creating sensing networks covering broader areas on the kilometer scale. Two methods for velocity calculation were developed for the GVP for low flow (Pe < 0.2) and high flow (Pe > 0.6) conditions. The GVP was found to operate from a 26-505 cmd-1 range in the laboratory to within ±26% of expected velocities for high-flow conditions and effectively measure directional flow angles to within ±14° of expected. Hydraulic conductivity measurements made by the GVP were confirmed to within ±12% as compared to laboratory measurements. The GVP was found capable of measuring the dispersion coefficient in the laboratory, however turbulent interferences caused during injection was found to occur. Further advancement of the technology may be merited to improve dispersion coefficient measurements. Automated water sampling can provide valuable information of the spatial and temporal distribution of pollutant loading in surface water environments. This ability is expanded with the development of the WASN, providing an affordable, ease-of-use method compared to conventional automated water samplers currently on the market. The WASN was found to effectively operate by text activation via GSM cellular networks to an activation module. Propagation of the signal was distributed to collection units via XBee modules operating on point-to-point star communication using an IEEE 802.15.4 protocol. Signal communications effectively transmitted in the field during a storm event to within a range of 200 feet and collected 50 ±4 ml samples at synced timed increments. A tracer study confirmed that no mixing of samples occurs when a factor of safety of 2 is applied to flush times. This technology provides similar abilities to current market devices at down to 10% of the cost, thereby allowing much more sampling locations for a similar budget. The Arc-Type APTV is useful in establishing both low range horizontal velocity fields and expanding low range velocity measurements below detection ranges of mechanical velocity meters. Installation of a field station showed system functionality, which may be integrated with other environmental sensing probes for surface water testing. This may assist in nutrient distribution analysis and understanding the complex behavior of hydraulic retention times within wetland systems. The device was found to work effectively in both lab and field environments from a 0.02 – 5.0 cms-1 range and measure velocity within approximately ±10% of an acoustic Doppler velocimeter and within an average of ±10° of directional measurements. A drop in accuracy was measured for velocity ranges > 4.5 cms-1. The field station operated on 3G CDMA cellular network two-way communication by installation of a Raven cellular modem. Use of LoggerNet software allowed control and data acquisition from anywhere with an internet connection. This thesis also introduces brief discussions on expanding these "point" measurement technologies into sensing networks. Installation of sub-stations with communication protocols to one central master node station may broaden the sensing system into much larger kilometer-scale ranges, thus allowing large spatial analysis of environmental conditions. Such an integration into controllable sensing networks may help bridge the gap and add calibration and verification abilities between fine-resolution "point" measurements and large scale technologies such as Electrical Resistivity Tomography and satellite remote sensing. Furthermore, application of sensing networks may assist in calibration and verification of surface and groundwater models such as ModFlow, SVFlux and FEHM.