Estudos em interfaces são importantes para o completo entendimento de muitos processos em química, física e biologia. Esses sistemas são governados principalmente pelas propriedades interfaciais dos materiais. Nas duas últimas décadas, o desenvolvimento de novos métodos experimentais melhorou o nosso entendimento das propriedades interfaciais. O advento de uma série de técnicas de espectroscopia a laser baseadas em óptica não linear e o desenvolvimento das técnicas de microscopia por ponta de prova, possibilitaram estudos antes inimagináveis em superfícies e interfaces. Entre as técnicas de espectroscopia não linear, destacamos a espectroscopia por Geração de Soma de Frequências (espectroscopia SFG). Essa técnica foi desenvolvida por Shen et al. em 1987 e, desde então, é aplicada a muitos estudos em superfícies e interfaces. A espectroscopia SFG pode fornecer informações sobre a natureza química por meio do espectro vibracional e sobre o ordenamento médio das moléculas em uma única monocamada. O sinal SFG só pode ser gerado em meios não centrossimétricos, isso inclui superfícies ou interfaces entre meios centrossimétricos, onde há quebra da simetria de inversão. A combinação da espectroscopia SFG com a microscopia óptica tem sido proposta como uma nova técnica experimental para obter imagens em interfaces com sensibilidade química pelo espectro vibracional e contraste pela orientação e ordenamento das moléculas. Neste trabalho, apresentamos o desenvolvimento, construção e caracterização de um Microscópio SFG (MSFG). Esse MSFG foi especialmente projetado para estudos em superfícies ou interfaces tanto líquidas quanto sólidas. Testes iniciais de desempenho do MSFG foram realizados na interface líquido/ar da solução binária água/acetonitrila (H2O⁄CH3CN). Foram obtidas imagens do sinal SFG ressonante com o estiramento simétrico do grupo metil (CH3) da acetonitrila na interface líquido⁄ar da solução binária. Variando a fração molar da acetonitrila na solução entre 4% e 20% observamos a dependência da intensidade do sinal SFG na interface em função da fração molar de acetonitrila no volume do líquido. Testes também foram feitos em filmes Langmuir-Blodgett multicamada de ácido esteárico (CH3(CH2)16COOH). Obtivemos a espectromicroscopia SFG na ressonância dos grupos CH2 e CH3 do ácido graxo. Pelas diferenças entre os espectros SFG das regiões ordenadas e desordenadas, a espectromicroscopia revelou distribuições microscópicas do ordenamento das cadeias alquila que formam o filme. A sensibilidade da detecção do sinal SFG foi caracterizada e revelou a possibilidade de obter imagens na superfície da água em menos de um minuto. A caracterização óptica e os testes nas interfaces líquido⁄ar e sólido⁄ar demonstraram a completa capacidade do MSFG como ferramenta para investigar qualquer superfície ou interface, seja essa líquida ou sólida. / Interface studies are important for the complete understanding of many processes in chemistry, physics and biology. These systems are mainly governed by the interfacial properties of the materials. In the last two decades, the development of new experimental methods improved our understanding of interfacial properties. The advent of a host of laser spectroscopy techniques based on nonlinear optics and the development of the scanning probe microscopy techniques, opened up unimaginable possibilities of studies at surfaces and interfaces. Among these nonlinear spectroscopies we turned our attention to Sum Frequency Generation spectroscopy (SFG spectroscopy). This technique was developed by Shen et al. in 1987 and, since then, it has been applied to many studies of surfaces and interfaces. SFG spectroscopy can provide information about the chemical nature by the vibrational spectra and about the average of molecular ordering in a single monolayer. The SFG signal only can be generated in a noncentrossymetric media, this includes surfaces or interfaces between centrossymetric media, where there is a broken in the inversion symmetry. The combination of SFG spectroscopy with optical microscopy has been proposed as a novel experimental technique to obtain images at interfaces with chemical sensitivity by the vibrational spectra as well as contrast by the ordering and orientation of the molecules. In this work we present the development, construction and characterization of an SFG Microscope (SFGM). This SFGM was specially designed to perform studies on surfaces or interfaces of liquids and solids. Initial SFGM performance tests were performed at the liquid/air interface of the water/acetonitrile (H2O/CH3CN) binary solution. The images of the SFG signal were acquired on the resonance of the methyl group (CH3) of acetonitrile present at the liquid⁄air interface of the binary solution. By varying the molar fraction of acetonitrile in the solution between 4% and 20% we observed the dependency of the SFG signal intensity as a function the acetonitrile bulk mole fraction. We also performed tests in multi-layered Langmuir-Blodgett films of stearic acid (CH3(CH2)16COOH). We obtained the SFG spectromicroscopy in the resonance of CH2 and CH3 groups of the fatty acid. By the differences between the SFG spectra of ordered and disordered regions, the spectromicroscopy revealed microscopic distribution of the conformational ordering in the alkyl chains that composes the film. The sensitivity of the SFG microscope was characterized and it was shown that images could be acquired at the water surface in less than one minute. The optical characterization and the performed tests at the liquid/air and solid/air interfaces demonstrated the full capabilities of the SFGM as a tool for investigations in any liquid or solid interface.

No description available.

In our experiments, the icing temperature of small water volumes placed on different pyroelectric single crystals (SrxBa1−xNb2O6, LiNbO3, and LiTaO3) was determined using two measurement setups: (1) the sessile droplet and (2) ring system method. In the first method, a free-standing water droplet was exposed to several external factors in the air environment. This was found to lead to higher icing temperatures compared to the second method where the water was more isolated from external factors such as evaporation. In the second method, the material of the ring system was found to be an important factor determining the freezing temperature of the enclosed water. A recommendation for the application of both methods is given, their advantages and disadvantages depending on the purpose of measurement, and their reproducibility for practical applications. In addition to this, the correlation between pyroelectricity and icing temperature, with regard to several types of internal and external factors affecting water freezing, is also discussed in the paper.

No description available.

The work presented in this thesis deals with experimental and theoretical studies related to alumina thin films. Alumina, Al2O3, is a polymorphic material utilized in a variety of applications, e.g., in the form of thin films. However, controlling thin film growth of this material, in particular at low substrate temperatures, is not straightforward. The aim of this work is to increase the understanding of the basic mechanisms governing alumina growth and to investigate novel ways of synthesizing alumina coatings. The thesis can be divided into two main parts, where the first part deals with fundamental studies of mechanisms affecting alumina growth and the second part with more application-oriented studies of high power impulse magnetron sputter (HiPIMS) deposition of the material. In the first part, it was shown that the thermodynamically stable α phase, which normally is synthesized at substrate temperatures of around 1000 °C, can be grown using reactive sputtering at a substrate temperature of merely 500 °C by controlling the nucleation surface. This was done by predepositing a Cr2O3 nucleation layer. Moreover, it was found that an additional requirement for the formation of the α phase is that the depositions are carried out at low enough total pressure and high enough oxygen partial pressure. Based on these observations, it was concluded that energetic bombardment, plausibly originating from energetic oxygen, is necessary for the formation of α-alumina (in addition to the effect of the chromia nucleation layer). Moreover, the effects of residual water on the growth of crystalline films were investigated by varying the partial pressure of water in the ultra high vacuum (UHV) chamber. Films deposited onto chromia nucleation layers exhibited a columnar structure and consisted of crystalline α-alumina if deposited under UHV conditions. However, as water to a partial pressure of 1*10-5 Torr was introduced, the columnar α-alumina growth was disrupted. Instead, a microstructure consisting of small, equiaxed grains was formed, and the γ-alumina content was found to increase with increasing film thickness. To gain a better understanding of the atomistic processes occurring on the surface, density functional theory based computational studies of adsorption and diffusion of Al, O, AlO, and O2 on different α-alumina (0001) surfaces were also performed. The results give possible reasons for the difficulties in growing the α phase at low temperatures through the identification of several metastable adsorption sites and also show how adsorbed hydrogen might inhibit further growth of α-alumina crystallites. In addition, it was shown that the Al surface diffusion activation energies are unexpectedly low, suggesting that limited surface diffusivity is not the main obstacle for low-temperature α-alumina growth. Instead, it is suggested to be more important to find ways of reducing the amount of impurities, especially hydrogen, in the process and to facilitate α-alumina nucleation when designing new processes for low-temperature deposition of α-alumina. In the second part of the thesis, reactive HiPIMS deposition of alumina was studied. In HiPIMS, a high-density plasma is created by applying very high power to the sputtering magnetron at a low duty cycle. It was found, both from experiments and modeling, that the use of HiPIMS drastically influences the characteristics of the reactive sputtering process, causing reduced target poisoning and thereby reduced or eliminated hysteresis effects and relatively high deposition rates of stoichiometric alumina films. This is not only of importance for alumina growth, but for reactive sputter deposition in general, where hysteresis effects and loss of deposition rate pose a substantial problem. Moreover, it was found that the energetic and ionized deposition flux in the HiPIMS discharge can be used to lower the deposition temperature of α-alumina. Coatings predominantly consisting of the α phase were grown at temperatures as low as 650 °C directly onto cemented carbide substrates without the use of nucleation layers. Such coatings were also deposited onto cutting inserts and were tested in a steel turning application. The coatings were found to increase the crater wear resistance compared to a benchmark TiAlN coating, and the process consequently shows great potential for further development towards industrial applications.

Cette thèse présente quelques approches expérimentales destinées à mesurer les propriétés mécaniques de films de polymères ultraminces, d'épaisseurs comprise entre 20 et quelques centaines de nanomètre. Nous présentons principalement la conception et l'exploitation d'une expérience de démouillage de films ultraminces sur substrat liquide. Nous montrons dans un premier temps que cette technique permet une mesure simple des propriétés viscoélastiques des films de polymères au dessus de Tg. Les résultats obtenus sur des films ultraminces mettent en évidence que le module au plateau caoutchoutique du polystyrene n'est pas affecté par le confinement, alors même que la viscosité est fortement réduite lorsque l'épaisseur des films est comparable au rayon de gyration des polymères. Divers phénomènes liés au mouillage ou au démouillage de films sont également abordés. Dans une seconde partie, nous présentons une autre expérience fondée sur une instabilité mécanique sur des films vitreux. Une simple observation des motifs induits permet de suivre l'évolution du module élastique dans le domaine vitreux. Enfin, une étude portant sur les possibilités d'investigations des effets de surface et d'interface par AFM sur des élastomères chargés est présentée dans une troisième partie.

Dans ce travail, nous illustrons l’avantage de coupler les techniques de photoémission résolue en angle (ARPES) et de microscopie/spectroscopie tunnel (STM/STS) pour l'étude des propriétés électroniques et structurales des surfaces/interfaces nanostructurées. Dans la première partie, nous présentons l’étude du supraconducteur non conventionnel Eu(Fe0.86Ir0.14)2As2. Ce composé, dopé en Ir de manière optimale, possède une phase supraconductrice réentrante (Tc=22K) qui coexiste avec un ordre ferromagnétique (TM=18K). Nous présentons une étude par ARPES de la structure de bande dans le plan et hors plan ainsi que de la surface de Fermi. Les bandes associées aux états 3d du fer, responsables de la supraconductivité, sont modifiées en présence de la substitution en Ir, mais la topologie de la surface de Fermi est conservée. Le gap supraconducteur est mesuré à 5.5 meV, supérieur à la valeur estimée par la théorie BCS pour une température Tc=22K. La disparition du gap au-dessus de T=10K coïncide avec la phase résistive induite par l’ordre magnétique des moments Eu2+. Les modifications de la surface de Fermi dans le composé substitué indiquent clairement un dopage effectif en trou par rapport au composé parent. La seconde partie est consacrée à l’étude de la croissance, des mécanismes de polymérisation et des conséquences sur les propriétés électroniques de nanostructures moléculaires. Celles-ci sont élaborées par évaporation sous vide des molécules 1,4-dibromobenzène (dBB) et 1,4-diiodobenzène (dIB) sur les surfaces de Cu(110), Cu(111) et Cu(775) en utilisant la réaction catalytique de Ullmann. Nous avons étudié l’influence du type d’halogène et de substrat sur la réaction de polymérisation ainsi que les conséquences sur les propriétés électroniques. En particulier, nous mettons en évidence par des mesures STM et NEXAFS (mesures effectuées à l’aide du rayonnement synchrotron) un mécanisme original de croissance des polymères sur la surface de Cu(775) qui s’accompagne d’une restructuration à l’échelle nanométrique sous la forme d’un « step-bunching ». Celui-ci conduit à la formation de polymères de grande longueur et parfaitement ordonnés à grande échelle. En combinant les mesures ARPES et STS, nous mettons en évidence une évolution du gap HOMO-LUMO caractérisant les chaînes de poly(para)phénylène ainsi formées avec le type d’halogène impliqué dans la réaction catalytique et la géométrie du substrat. Nous montrons ainsi que si le caractère métallique du polymère élaboré sur le Cu(110) trouve son origine dans sa forte interaction avec le substrat, celle-ci diminue fortement lorsque la synthèse a lieu sur les surfaces de Cu(111) et de Cu(775) conduisant à retrouver un comportement semi-conducteur caractérisé par un gap HOMO-LUMO évalué à 2.2 eV / In this work, we highlight the advantage of coupling techniques such as angle resolved photoemission (ARPES), scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) and scanning tunneling spectroscopy (STS) for investigating the electronic and structural properties of nanostructured surfaces/interfaces. In the first part, the electronic structure of the reentrant superconductor Eu(Fe0.86Ir0.14)2As2 (Tc=22K) with coexisting ferromagnetic order (TM=18K) is investigated using angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES) and scanning tunneling spectroscopy (STS). We study the in-plane and out-of-plane band dispersions and Fermi surface of Eu(Fe0.86Ir0.14)2As2. The near EF Fe 3d-derived band dispersions near the high-symmetry points show changes due to Ir substitution, but the Fermi surface topology is preserved. The superconducting gap measured at the lowest temperature T=5K (equal to 5.5meV) is beyond the weak-coupling BCS estimation for Tc=22 K. The gap gets closed at a temperature T=10K and this is attributed to the resistive phase which sets in at TM=18K due to the Eu2+ derived magnetic order. The modifications of the FS with Ir substitution clearly indicate an effective hole doping with respect to the parent compound. In the second part, we provide insight into the growth and the electronic properties of 1,4-dibromobenzene (dBB) and 1,4-diiodobenzene on Cu(110), Cu(111) and Cu(775) surfaces. The influence of the substrate is reported in this study: using a copper vicinal surface as support for on-surface Ullmann coupling leads to highly ordered, quasi-infinite polymer growth. Such a new growth mechanism, stemming from vicinal surface reconstructions is observed. The structural composition of different phases obtained in the study is discussed as a concomitant effect of the halogen and the surface geometry. Various interactions such as substrate/molecule, substrate/halogen, molecule/halogen as well as molecule/molecule interactions that took place into the polymerization mechanism are considered for analyzing the electronic properties of the different interfaces. We measured an 1.15 eV HOMO-LUMO gap in dBB/Cu(110), whereas the gap is found to be slightly higher than 1.5eV in dBB/Cu(111) and equal to 2.2eV in dBB/Cu(775). Such a metal-semiconductor transition is shown to occur when the halogen is switched (Br vs I) or the surface geometry is changed (Cu(110) vs Cu(775)) in agreement with the concomitant reduction of the polymer/substrate interaction

No description available.

Über die besonders hohe Effizienz von Halid-Perowskit (HaP)-basierten optoelektronischen Bauteilen wurde bereits in der Literatur berichtet. Um die Entwicklung dieser Bauteile voranzutreiben, ist ein umfassendes und verlässliches Verständnis derer elektronischen Struktur, sowie der Energielevelanordnung (ELA) an HaP Grenzflächen von größter Bedeutung. Demzufolge beschäftigt sich die vorliegende Arbeit mit der Untersuchung i) der Bandstruktur von Perowskit-Einkristallen, um ein solides Fundament für die Darlegung der elektronischen Eigenschaften von polykristallinen Dünnschichten zu erarbeiten, und mit ii) den Einflüssen von Oberflächenzuständen auf die elektronische Struktur der Oberfläche, sowie deren Rolle bei der Kontrolle von ELA an HaP Grenzflächen. Die Charakterisierung erfolgt überwiegend mithilfe von Photoelektronenspektroskopie (PES) und ergänzenden Messmethoden wie Beugung niederenergetischer Elektronen an Oberflächen, UV-VIS-Spektroskopie, Rasterkraftmikroskopie und Kelvin-Sonde. Erstens weist die Banddispersion von zwei prototypischen Perowskit-Einkristallen eine starke Dispersion des jeweiligen oberen Valenzbandes (VB) auf, dessen globales Maximum in beiden Fällen am R-Punkt in der Brillouin-Zone liegt. Dabei wird eine effektive Lochmasse von 0.25 m0 für CH3NH3PbBr3, bzw. von ~0.50 m0 für CH3NH3PbI3 bestimmt. Basierend auf diesen Ergebnissen werden die elektronischen Spektren von polykristallinen Dünnschichten konstruiert und es wird dadurch aufgezeigt, dass eine Bestimmung der Valenzbandkantenposition ausgehend von einer logarithmischen Intensitätsskala aufgrund von geringer Zustandsdichte am VB Maximum vorzuziehen ist. Zweitens stellt sich bei der Untersuchung der elektronischen Struktur von frisch präparierten Perowskit-Oberflächen heraus, dass die n-Typ Eigenschaft eine Folge der Bandverbiegung ist, welche durch donatorartige Oberflächenzustände hervorgerufen wird. Des Weiteren weisen die PES-Messungen an Perowskiten mit unterschiedlichen Zusammensetzungen aufgrund von Oberflächenphotospannung eine Anregungslichtintensitätsabhängigkeit der Energieniveaus von bis zu 0.7 eV auf. Darüber hinaus wird die Kontrolle von ELA durch gezielte Variation der Oberflächenzustandsdichte gezeigt, wodurch sich unterschiedliche ELA-Lagen (mit Abweichungen von über 0.5 eV) an den Grenzflächen mit organischen Akzeptormolekülen erklären lassen. Die vorliegenden Ergebnisse verhelfen dazu, die starke Abweichung der in der Literatur berichteten Energieniveaus zu erklären und somit ein verfeinertes Verständnis des Funktionsprinzips von perowskit-basierten Bauteilen zu erlangen. / Optoelectronic devices based on halide perovskites (HaPs) and possessing remarkably high performance have been reported. To push the development of such devices even further, a comprehensive and reliable understanding of their electronic structure, including the energy level alignment (ELA) at HaPs interfaces, is essential but presently not available. In an attempt to get a deep insight into the electronic properties of HaPs and the related interfaces, the work presented in this thesis investigates i) the fundamental band structure of perovskite single crystals, in order to establish solid foundations for a better understanding the electronic properties of polycrystalline thin films and ii) the effects of surface states on the surface electronic structure and their role in controlling the ELA at HaPs interfaces. The characterization is mostly performed using photoelectron spectroscopy, together with complementary techniques including low-energy electron diffraction, UV-vis absorption spectroscopy, atomic force microscopy and Kelvin probe measurements. Firstly, the band structure of two prototypical perovskite single crystals is unraveled, featuring widely dispersing top valence bands (VB) with the global valence band maximum at R point of the Brillouin zone. The hole effective masses there are determined to be ~0.25 m0 for CH3NH3PbBr3 and ~0.50 m0 for CH3NH3PbI3. Based on these results, the energy distribution curves of polycrystalline thin films are constructed, revealing the fact that using a logarithmic intensity scale to determine the VB onset is preferable due to the low density of states at the VB maximum. Secondly, investigations on the surface electronic structure of pristine perovskite surfaces conclude that the n-type behavior is a result of surface band bending due to the presence of donor-type surface states. Furthermore, due to surface photovoltage effect, photoemission measurements on different perovskite compositions exhibit excitation-intensity dependent energy levels with a shift of up to 0.7 eV. Eventually, control over the ELA by manipulating the density of surface states is demonstrated, from which very different ELA situations (variation over 0.5 eV) at interfaces with organic electron acceptor molecules are rationalized. Our findings further help to explain the rather dissimilar reported energy levels at perovskite surfaces and interfaces, refining our understanding of the operational principles in perovskite related devices.

No description available.