Les membranes à base de liquides ioniques à conduction protonique (PCIL) sont très prometteuses comme électrolytes des piles à combustible haute température (HT- PEMFC) du fait de leur forte conductivité et stabilité à des températures supérieures à 100°C. L'objectif de cette thèse est de réaliser une étude approfondie sur l'évolution de la morphologie et des propriétés fonctionnelles, des membranes à base de liquides ioniques, avec i) la concentration en PCIL, ii) la méthode d’élaboration et iii) la structure chimique du PCIL. Afin de prouver la potentialité de ces membranes dans le HT-PEMFC, des tests préliminaires en pile sont réalisés et les phénomènes de dégradation des PCIL et des membranes en présence de peroxyde d'hydrogène sont étudiés. La première partie de ce travail est focalisée sur la caractérisation des membranes de Nafion® neutralisées avec le triéthylamine (Nafion-TEA) et gonflées avec triflate de triéthylammonium (TFTEA). Il a été montré que dans le Nafion-TEA sec, les cations présentent une organisation de type « string like » à l'interface hydrophobe-hydrophile. L’introduction du TFTEA dans la membrane Nafion-TEA ne détruit pas sa nano-structuration, mais augmente de manière significative la conductivité ionique du système. La deuxième partie de ce travail nous a permis d'établir que les membranes dopées élaborées par coulée-évaporation présentent une meilleure organisation et une meilleure tenue thermomécanique par rapport à celles obtenues par gonflement. La troisième partie de ce travail est focalisée sur l’étude de l'impact de la nature chimique du PCIL sur la morphologie et les propriétés fonctionnelles des membranes de Nafion-TEA. Il a été démontré que les PCILs avec longues chaînes perfluorées ne modifient pas la nano-structuration du Nafion-TEA. Ceci a un impact fort sur les propriétés de conductivité, de sorption d’eau et sur les propriétés thermomécaniques de la membrane. Dans la dernière partie, des Ionomères aromatiques ont été synthétisés afin de remplacer le Nafion-TEA. Malgré la structure similaire de la chaîne latérale des Ionomères aromatiques et du Nafion®, les membranes à base d’Ionomères aromatiques et TFTEA ne présentent aucune nano-structuration. De plus l’effet plastifiant du TFTEA est plus notable dans le cas des Ionomères aromatiques probablement du fait d’une distribution aléatoire des fonctions ioniques dans la membrane polymère. / The polymer electrolyte membranes based on Proton Conducting Ionic liquids (PCIL) are very promising systems for the high temperature-PEMFC technology owing to their good ionic conductivity and stability at temperatures above 100oC. The objective of this thesis work is to achieve a profound study on the evolution of morphology and consequent functional properties of the PCIL based polymer electrolyte membranes in function of: i). concentration of the PCIL, ii). the method of elaboration and iii). chemical structure of the PCIL. To demonstrate the potential of these membranes in HT-PEMFC, preliminary tests have been carried out in the fuel cell stack and degradation phenomena associated with PCILs and membranes in the presence of hydrogen peroxide have been studied. The first part of this work is focused on the characterization of Nafion® membranes neutralized with triethylamine (Nafion-TEA) and swollen with triethylammonium Triflate (TFTEA). It has been shown that Nafion-TEA exhibits a single layer string-like organization of inter-digited Triethylammonium cations at the hydrophobic-hydrophilic interface when in anhydrous state. The introduction of TFTEA into Nafion-TEA membrane does not destroy its nano-structuration but significantly boosts the anhydrous ionic conductivity and hydrophilicity of the system. The second part of this work has permitted us to establish the fact that doped membranes prepared by casting method have better organization and better thermo-mechanical properties compared to those obtained by swelling method. Third part of this work focuses on the impact of the chemical nature of the PCIL on the morphology and functional properties of Nafion-TEA membranes. It has been demonstrated that the PCILs with long perfluorinated chain length do not modify the nano-structuration of Nafion-TEA membranes at all. This has a strong impact on the ion-conducting, water-sorption and thermo-mechanical properties of the membrane. In the last part, aromatic ionomers were synthesized in order to replace Nafion-TEA in such PCIL based system. Despite the similar structure of the side chain of the synthesized aromatic ionomers and Nafion®, the membranes based on aromatic ionomers and TFTEA do not present any nano-structuration. Moreover, the plasticizing effect of TFTEA is more noticeable in the case of aromatic ionomers probably due to a random distribution functions in the ionic polymer membrane.

COSTA, Diego Rabelo da. Transportes e confinamento em monocamada e bicamada de nanoestruturas de grafeno com diferentes bordas, interfaces e potenciais. 2014. 201 f. Tese (Doutorado em Física) - Programa de Pós-Graduação em Física, Departamento de Física, Centro de Ciências, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Fortaleza, 2014. / Submitted by Edvander Pires (edvanderpires@gmail.com) on 2015-06-01T22:18:12Z No. of bitstreams: 1 2014_tese_drcosta.pdf: 54910487 bytes, checksum: 82b386bac8259edaa10f6d5ff314bd42 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Edvander Pires(edvanderpires@gmail.com) on 2015-06-01T22:19:16Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 2014_tese_drcosta.pdf: 54910487 bytes, checksum: 82b386bac8259edaa10f6d5ff314bd42 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2015-06-01T22:19:16Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2014_tese_drcosta.pdf: 54910487 bytes, checksum: 82b386bac8259edaa10f6d5ff314bd42 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014 / Graphene, a two-dimensional lattice of carbon atoms, has been widely studied during the past few years. The interest in this material is not only due to its possible future technological applications, but also because it provides the possibility to probe interesting phenomena predicted by quantum field theories, ranging from Klein tunneling and other quasi-relativistic effects to the existence of new types of electron degrees of freedom, namely, the pseudo-spin, and the existence of two inequivalent electronic valleys in the vicinity of the gapless points of its energy spectrum. Several of the exotic properties observed in graphene originate from the fact that within the low energy approximation for the tight-binding Hamiltonian of graphene, electrons behave as massless Dirac fermions, with a linear energy dispersion. Just like in single layer graphene, the low-energy eletronic spectrum in bilayer graphene is gapless, but in this case it is dominated by the parabolic dispersion. Nevertheless, one interesting feature is shared by both monolayer and bilayer graphene: the valley degree of freedom. In this thesis, we theoretically investigate: (i) the dynamic properties in mono and bilayer graphene, performing a systematic study of wave packet scattering in different interface shapes, edges and potentials; and furthermore (ii) the energy levels of confined systems in graphene in the presence or absence of external magnetic and electric fields. In the first part of the work, we use the tight-binding approach to study the scattering of a Gaussian wave packet on monolayer graphene edges (armchair and zigzag) in the presence of real and pseudo (strain induced) magnetic fields and also calculate the transmission probabilities of a Gaussian wave packet through a quantum point contact defined by electrostatic gates in bilayer graphene. These numerical calculations are based on the solution of the time-dependent Schrödinger equation for the tight-binding model Hamiltonian, using the Split-operator technique. Our theory allows us to investigate scattering in reciprocal space, and depending on the type of graphene edge we observe scattering within the same valley, or between different valleys. In the presence of an external magnetic field, the well known skipping orbits are observed. However, our results demonstrate that in the case of a pseudo-magnetic field, induced by non-uniform strain, the scattering by an armchair edge results in a non-propagating edge state. We propose also a very efficient valley filtering through a quantum point contact system defined by electrostatic gates in bilayer graphene. For the suggested bilayer system, we investigate how to improve the efficiency of the system as a valley filter by varying parameters, such as length, width and amplitude of the applied potential. In the second part of the thesis, we present a systematic study of the energy spectra of graphene quantum rings having different geometries and edge types, in the presence of a perpendicular magnetic field. We discuss which features obtained through a simplified Dirac model can be recovered when the eigenstates of graphene quantum rings are compared with the tight-binding results. Furthermore, we also investigate the confined states in two different hybrid monolayer - bilayer systems, identifying dot-localized states and edge states for the suggested bilayer confinement structures, as well as we will study the behavior of the energy levels as a function of dot size and under an applied external magnetic field. Finally, using the four-band continuum Dirac model, we also derive a general expression for the infinite-mass boundary condition in bilayer graphene in order to apply this boundary condition to calculate analytically the confined states and the corresponding wave functions in a bilayer graphene quantum dot in the absence and presence of a perpendicular magnetic field. Our analytic results exhibit good agreement when compared with the tight-binding ones. / Grafeno, uma rede bidimensional de átomos de carbono, tem sido amplamente estudado durante os últimos anos. O interesse por este material não é apenas devido às suas possíveis aplicações tecnológicas futuras, mas também porque oferece a possibilidade de investigar fenômenos interessantes previstos pelas teorias quânticas de campo, que vão desde o tunelamento de Klein e outros efeitos quasi-relativísticos à existência de novos tipos de graus de liberdade do elétron, ou seja, o pseudo-spin, e a existência de dois vales eletrônicos não-equivalentes na vizinhança dos pontos sem gap do seu espectro de energia. Várias das propriedades exóticas observadas no grafeno originam-se do facto de que dentro da aproximação de baixas energias para o Hamiltoniano tight-binding do grafeno, elétrons se comportam como férmions de Dirac sem massa, com uma dispersão de energia linear. Assim como no caso de uma monocamada de grafeno, o espectro eletrônico de baixas energias para uma bicamada de grafeno é sem gap, mas, neste caso, é dominado pela dispersão parabólica. No entanto, uma característica interessante é compartilhada por ambas monocamada e bicamada de grafeno: o grau de liberdade de vale. Nesta tese, nós investigamos teoricamente: (i) as propriedades dinâmicas em mono e bicamadas de grafeno, realizando um estudo sistemático do espalhamento de pacotes de onda em diferentes formas de interfaces, bordas e potenciais; e, além disso, (ii) os níveis de energia de sistemas confinados no grafeno na presença ou ausência de campos magnéticos e elétricos externos. Na primeira parte do trabalho, nós utilizamos a abordagem tight-binding para estudar o espalhamento de um pacote de onda Gaussiano nas bordas de uma monocamada de grafeno (armchair e zigzag) na presença de campos magnéticos reais e pseudo-magnéticos (induzidos por tensão) e também calculamos as probabilidades de transmissão de um pacote de onda Gaussiano através de um contato de ponto quântico definido por potenciais eletrostáticos em bicamadas de grafeno. Estes cálculos numéricos são baseados na solução da equação de Schrödinger dependente do tempo para o Hamiltoniano do modelo tight-binding, usando a técnica Split-operator. Nossa teoria permite investigar espalhamento no espaço recíproco, e dependendo do tipo de borda do grafeno, nós observamos espalhamento dentro do mesmo vale, ou entre diferentes vales. Na presença de um campo magnético externo, as bem conhecidas órbitas skipping orbits são observadas. No entanto, nossos resultados demonstram que, no caso de um campo pseudo-magnético induzido por uma tensão não-uniforme, o espalhamento por uma borba armchair resulta em um estado de borda não-propagante. Nós também propomos um sistema de filtragem de vales muito eficiente através de um sistema de contato de ponto quântico definido por portas eletrostáticas em uma bicamada de grafeno. Para o sistema de bicamadas sugerido, nós investigamos a forma de melhorar a eficiência do sistema como um filtro de vales por diferentes parâmetros, como comprimento, largura e amplitude do potencial aplicado. Na segunda parte da tese, nós apresentamos um estudo sistemático dos espectros de energia de anéis quânticos de grafeno com diferentes geometrias e tipos de borda, na presença de um campo magnético perpendicular. Nós discutimos quais características obtidas por meio de um modelo simplificado de Dirac podem ser recuperadas quando os auto-estados de anéis quânticos de grafeno são comparados com os resultados do modelo tight-binding. Além disso, nós também investigamos os estados confinados em dois sistemas híbridos diferentes de monocamada - bicamada, identificando estados localizados dentro do ponto e estados de borda para as estruturas de confinamento em bicamadas sugeridas, assim como vamos estudar o comportamento dos níveis de energia em função do tamanho do ponto e sob um campo magnético externo aplicado. Finalmente, usando o modelo contínuo de Dirac de quatro bandas, nós também derivamos uma expressão geral para a condição de contorno de massa infinita em bicamada de grafeno, a fim de aplicar essa condição de contorno para calcular analiticamente os estados confinados e as correspondentes funções de onda em um ponto quântico em uma bicamada de grafeno na ausência e na presença de um campo magnético perpendicular. Nossos resultados analíticos apresentam boa concordância quando comparados com os resultados tight-binding.

L'hydrogène gazeux va être produit par la corrosion anaérobique des containers dans le stockage géologique de déchets radioactifs. Ce gaz peut avoir un impact sur la stabilité de la couche géologique, du fait d'une part de son caractère réducteur et d'autre part de sa production en continu pendant environ 100 000 ans. Une augmentation de pression locale peut affecter les propriétés hydro-gazo dynamiques des transferts en hydrogène. Le caractère réducteur de H2 peut modifier les propriétés d'oxydo-réduction de l'argilite du Callovo-Oxfordien (COx) et les propriétés hydrauliques de la barrière, et donc (1) sa minéralogie, (2) la spéciation des radionucléides sortant du container et (3) leur transfert. De plus, si le transport de l'hydrogène gazeux est difficile au sein de la couche géologique, l'augmentation de pression pourrait en induire la fissuration et ainsi créer des chemins préférentiels favorables à cette migration. Un dispositif expérimental a été mis en place afin d'évaluer tant la pression d'entrée de H2(g) que les paramètres de transport par perméation et diffusion à travers le COx. La pression d'entrée de l'hydrogène gazeux au sein de l'argilite du Callovo-Oxfordien saturé est comprise entre 49 et 63 bar. Sachant que la pression maximale attendue est d'environ 80 bar, on pourra donc avoir un déplacement du gaz dans la roche saturée en eau. Pour une saturation supérieure à 0,90 et avec T = 23°C, la perméabilité mesurée est proche de 10-23 m2 et le coefficient de diffusion de 10-12 m2.s-1. Ceci laisse donc envisager un déplacement lent de l'hydrogène dans la roche, par exemple il lui faudra environ 31 710 ans pour traverser un mètre de roche sous l'effet de la diffusion. Il a également été mis en évidence que les paramètres de transport dépendent essentiellement de la saturation de l'échantillon et dépendent peu de la température. Concernant la réactivité, dans des conditions proches de celles dans le stockage, H2 va réduire jusqu'à 9 wt% du Fe(III) structural sous 90°C et PH2 = 5 bar. Cette réaction n'est pas totale et le mécanisme majoritaire va être la sorption de gaz. Les niveaux d'hydrogène ainsi prélevés par le solide atteignent 0,05 wt% à 90°C et PH2 = 0,45 bar. Ce phénomène dépend fortement de la saturation de l'échantillon en eau du fait de la compétition entre H2 et H2O pour se sorber sur les sites de sorption à la surface de l'échantillon. Au total jusqu'à 18 m3 de H2 vont se sorber par m3 de COx sous PH2 = 0,45 bar et T = 90°C en conditions sèches. Ce processus va permettre, en complément du transport de gaz, de diminuer localement la pression en hydrogène. / Hydrogen gas will be produced by anaerobic corrosion of radioactive waste containers in the geological repository. This gas could affect the geological layer (Callovo-Oxfordian) stability, first due to its reductive capacity and then also due to its continuous production for about 100,000 years. The local pressure increase could affect the properties of hydro-gaseous dynamic of hydrogen transfers. The reductive capacity of H2 could change the redox properties of the Callovo-Oxfordian and the barrier hydraulic properties, and therefore (1) its mineralogy, (2) the speciation of outgoing radionuclides and (3) their transfer. Moreover, if the hydrogen gas transport is difficult within the geological layer, the pressure increase could cause cracking and create preferential pathways for radionuclides migration. An experimental device was developed to measure the entry pressure of H2(g) and transport parameters as permeability and diffusion coefficient through the COx. The entry pressure is estimated to be between 49 and 63 bar. Knowing that the maximum expected pressure is about 80 bar, there may therefore be a displacement of hydrogen gas into the water saturated clayrock. Moreover, for a saturation greater than 0.90 and at T = 23°C, permeability is measured to be close to 10-23 m2 and the diffusion coefficient to be as low as 10-12 m2.s-1. Therefore hydrogen gas will move slowly in the geological layer, for example it will take about 31,710 years to go through one meter of clayrock by diffusion. These transport parameters are found to depend mainly on the sample water saturation and not much on temperature. Regarding hydrogen reactivity, under conditions close to those in the storage, H2 will reduce up to 9 wt% of structural Fe (III) at 90°C and PH2 = 5 bar. This reaction is not complete and hydrogen gas will mainly sorb on the material, with a sorption up to 0.05 wt% at 90°C and PH2 = 0.45 bar. This process depends strongly on the water saturation of the sample, because of a competition between H2 and H2O to sorb on the surface. As a whole, more than 18 m3 of H2 per m3 of COx will sorb in dried conditions. This process will allow, during gas transport, to reduce locally the hydrogen pressure.

Submitted by Eliézer Fernando de Oliveira null (eliezer@fc.unesp.br) on 2016-12-01T22:42:08Z No. of bitstreams: 1 tese-oliveiraef-final-2016.pdf: 4897359 bytes, checksum: e91f8fa951ca10c244974954f09cb53b (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Felipe Augusto Arakaki (arakaki@reitoria.unesp.br) on 2016-12-05T13:21:08Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 oliveira_ef_dr_bauru.pdf: 4897359 bytes, checksum: e91f8fa951ca10c244974954f09cb53b (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-12-05T13:21:08Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 oliveira_ef_dr_bauru.pdf: 4897359 bytes, checksum: e91f8fa951ca10c244974954f09cb53b (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-11-28 / Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) / Materiais orgânicos vêm sendo utilizados em diversos tipos de dispositivos eletrônicos e optoeletrônicos, sendo um dos destaques seu uso em células solares. Atualmente, células solares que utilizam materiais orgânicos na camada ativa já atingem eficiências em torno de 12% na conversão da energia solar em elétrica. Apesar destes materiais apresentarem vantagens em relação ao custo do produto final e processamento comparado aos inorgânicos, a comunidade científica ainda se depara com problemas relacionados às propriedades intrínsecas, como por exemplo, baixa estabilidade à oxidação e energias de bandgap elevadas; deste modo, ainda é viável encontrar novos materiais orgânicos que superem tais problemas. Este trabalho teve como finalidade a busca de novos materiais orgânicos, mais especificamente polímeros conjugados, para aplicações em camada ativa de células solares utilizando métodos teóricos de modelagem de materiais em níveis de teoria semi-empírico e DFT. A primeira parte deste trabalho focou no estudo de novos copolímeros de comonômeros similares e novos homopolímeros derivados de P3HT. Aqui foi possível verificar que, através de substituições químicas realizadas no P3HT, pode-se encontrar novos polímeros com valores mais apropriados para as energias dos orbitais moleculares de fronteira e maiores mobilidades de carga, propriedades que estão intimamente relacionadas à eficiência e à estabilidade que a célula solar pode atingir. Um dos novos polímeros que apresentou potencial para aplicação em camadas ativas de células solares foi o P3HT fluorado, que posteriormente foi confirmado através de trabalhos experimentais. Para os copolímeros de comonômeros similares, verificou-se que as propriedades eletrônicas e ópticas destes materiais apresentam uma dependência linear com as mesmas propriedades e a proporção de monômeros dos homopolímeros que foram utilizados como comonômeros na construção do copolímero; o destaque maior é que através desta relação linear pode-se projetar novos copolímeros de comonômeros similares antes de uma possível síntese. A segunda parte deste trabalho avaliou as metodologias de modelagem de materiais orgânicos baseadas na (TD)DFT que seriam viáveis para a correta descrição teórica das propriedades ópticas. Verificou-se que uma confiável previsão da energia de transição vertical pode ser obtida por meio do funcional M06HF, adicionando um fator de correção de -0,75 eV nas energias obtidas com ele. Em relação à absorção óptica do estado excitado, o funcional B3LYP não prevê corretamente as energias de transição entre os estados excitados, ao passo que resultados mais confiáveis podem ser obtidos com os funcionais BHLYP e CAM-B3LYP comparado aos dados experimentais disponíveis. / Organic materials have been used in various types of electronic and optoelectronic devices, with prominent application in solar cells. Solar cells in which the active layers are composed of organic materials already reach efficiencies of around 12% in the conversion of solar energy into electricity. Although these materials have advantages in relation to the final cost and processing compared to the inorganics, the scientific community still faces problems related to intrinsic properties, such as low oxidation stability and high bandgap energy; thus, it is desirable to find new organic materials that overcome these problems. This work aimed at the search for new organic materials – specifically conjugated polymers – for applications in active layers of solar cells employing theoretical methods of material modeling of semi-empirical and DFT theory levels. The first part of this work focuses on the study of new copolymers of similar comonomers and new P3HT derivatives. Here it was observed that, through chemical substitutions made in P3HT, one may find new polymers with appropriate values for the energies of the frontier molecular orbitals and increased charge mobility, properties that are closely related to the efficiency and stability that the solar cell can achieve. One of the novel polymers found which have potential for use in active layers was the fluorinated P3HT, later confirmed by experimental works. For copolymers of similar comonomers, it was found that the electronic and optical properties of these materials exhibit a linear dependence with the same properties and the monomers proportion of the homopolymers that were used as comonomers in the construction of the copolymer; most important is that through this linear relationship one may design new copolymers of similar comonomers before a possible synthesis. The second part of this study evaluated the methodologies for modeling of organic materials based on (TD)DFT that would be viable for a proper theoretical description of the optical properties. It was found that a reliable prediction of the vertical transition energy from the ground state of conjugated polymers can be obtained with the M06HF functional adding a correction factor of -0.75 eV in its obtained energies. Regarding the excited state optical absorption, the B3LYP functional do not correctly predicts the transition energy between the excited states, while more reliable results can be obtained with BHLYP and CAM-B3LYP functionals compared to the available experimental data. / FAPESP: 2012/21983-0

O emprego de polímeros naturais na preparação de filmes poliméricos usados na liberação de espécies bioativas tem sido proposto para controlar, a partir das propriedades da matriz polimérica, a cinética de liberação das espécies devido a difusão na matriz e biodegradação desta depois de contato com o meio. Neste trabalho, filmes de quitosana modificados com nanofibras de celulose (NFC) foram preparados para incorporação de glifosato e o estudo das propriedades físico-químicas deste sistema. Os filmes e os nanocompósitos são semicristalinos e estáveis a temperatura ambiente. Os ensaios de transporte de água, permeação ao vapor de água e inchamento em água mostram que as NFC oferecem efeito de barreira, pois a permeação diminui com o aumento da porcentagem de NFC, sendo este efeito benéfico no controle da liberação de espécies bioativas. O glifosato foi eficientemente incorporada aos filmes de NFC, quitosana e nanocompósitos. A presença do glifosato foi observada nos espectros na região do infravermelho, sendo mais evidente nos filmes de NFC e nos compósitos com maior concentração de NFC. Este aspecto indica maior interação entre a quitosana e o glifosato com melhor dispersão deste na matriz de quitosana. O trabalho desenvolvido é promissor, pois possibilitará o desenvolvimento de sistemas para liberação controlada do herbicida mais utilizado comercialmente usando matrizes poliméricas de origem natural. / The use of natural polymers in the preparation of polymer films with the purpose of releasing bioactive species has been proposed to control, through its matrix properties, the kinetics release of the species due to diffusion on its matrix and further biodegradation after contact with the medium. In this work, chitosan films modified with cellulose nanofibers (CNF) were prepared for incorporation of glyphosate and used to the study of physicochemical system properties. The films and nanocomposites showed up semi-crystalline and stable at room temperature. The water transport, steam permeation and water swelling tests have evidenced that CNFs offer a barrier effect, since the permeation decreases with increasing percentage of CNF, providing a beneficial effect in controlling the release of bioactive species. Glyphosate was efficiently incorporated into CNF films, chitosan and nanocomposites. The presence of glyphosate was observed in the infrared spectrum, being more evident and clear in CNF films and composites with higher CNF concentration. This aspect indicates a great interaction between chitosan and glyphosate and its excellent dispersion in the chitosan matrix. This is a promising investigation, as it will allow the development of systems for controlled release of the most commercially used herbicide, through the use of polymer matrices of natural origin. / Dissertação (Mestrado)

Desde sua descoberta por S. Iijima em 1991, os nanotubos de carbono têm sido considerados um dos materiais nanoestruturados mais promissores para o desenvolvimento de novos dispositivos eletrônicos em escala nanoscópica. Devido _a sua alta razão entre a área superficial e o volume, esse material se destaca para aplicações como sensores de gás. No presente trabalho, estudamos através de simulações computacionais, a possibilidade de nanotubos de carbono com defeitos de nitrogênio (os chamados nanotubos CNx), poderem ser usados como sensores de moléculas gasosas. Na primeira parte do trabalho foram realizados cálculos de estrutura eletrônica baseados na Teoria do Funcional da Densidade (DFT) para diferentes sistemas formados pelo nanotubo e pela molécula. Através de cálculos de energia de ligação, foi possível identificar quais gases poderiam ou não serem adsorvidos à superfície do nanotubo. Dentre as moléculas investigadas, o monóxido de carbono e a amônia mostraram ser as mais facilmente adsorvidas ao nanotubo. Na segunda parte, foram realizados cálculos das propriedades de transporte utilizando o formalismo das funções de Green fora do equilíbrio (NEGF) recursivo. Foi possível concluir que os nanotubos estudados poderiam ser usados para detectar o monóxido de carbono e a amônia. Todavia, em relação à seletividade, os resultados indicaram que não parece possível distinguir essas duas moléculas, caso o sistema fosse inserido em um ambiente contendo uma mistura desses gases. Ainda, foram feitas simulações de nanotubos contendo defeitos aleatoriamente distribuídos, de forma a levar em conta os fatores de desordem característicos de sistemas mais realistas. / Since their discovery by S. Iijima in 1991, carbon nanotubes have been considered as one of the most promising nanostructured materials for the development of new nanoscopic electronic devices. Due to its high surface area to volume ratio, this material stands out as a candidate for possible gas sensoring applications. In this thesis, we have studied, by means of computational simulations, the possibility of using carbon nanotubes containing nitrogen defects (the so-called CNx nanotubes) as gas sensors. In the first part, we have performed electronic structure calculations based on Density Functional Theory (DFT) of several systems to address the possible binding of different molecules to the nanotube surface. Our results indicate that, among the molecules which were investigated, carbon monoxide and ammonia adsorb more easily to the nanotube surface. In the second part of this thesis, we have performed calculations of the transport properties by means of non-equilibrium Green\'s function formalism (NEGF). The results have shown that the nitrogen-defect carbon nanotubes could be used to detect, mainly carbon monoxide and ammonia molecules. On the other hand, when dealing with the selectivity of this system, it seems to be not possible to distinguish these gases, in the case of inserting the system in a environment containing a mixture of these molecules. Finally, we have simulated carbon nanotubes with defects randomly distributed along its length, in order to take into account disordering factors usually found in more realistic nanosensors.

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento CientÃfico e TecnolÃgico / Grafeno, uma rede bidimensional de Ãtomos de carbono, tem sido amplamente estudado durante os Ãltimos anos. O interesse por este material nÃo à apenas devido Ãs suas possÃveis aplicaÃÃes tecnolÃgicas futuras, mas tambÃm porque oferece a possibilidade de investigar fenÃmenos interessantes previstos pelas teorias quÃnticas de campo, que vÃo desde o tunelamento de Klein e outros efeitos quasi-relativÃsticos à existÃncia de novos tipos de graus de liberdade do elÃtron, ou seja, o pseudo-spin, e a existÃncia de dois vales eletrÃnicos nÃo-equivalentes na vizinhanÃa dos pontos sem gap do seu espectro de energia. VÃrias das propriedades exÃticas observadas no grafeno originam-se do facto de que dentro da aproximaÃÃo de baixas energias para o Hamiltoniano tight-binding do grafeno, elÃtrons se comportam como fÃrmions de Dirac sem massa, com uma dispersÃo de energia linear. Assim como no caso de uma monocamada de grafeno, o espectro eletrÃnico de baixas energias para uma bicamada de grafeno à sem gap, mas, neste caso, à dominado pela dispersÃo parabÃlica. No entanto, uma caracterÃstica interessante à compartilhada por ambas monocamada e bicamada de grafeno: o grau de liberdade de vale. Nesta tese, nÃs investigamos teoricamente: (i) as propriedades dinÃmicas em mono e bicamadas de grafeno, realizando um estudo sistemÃtico do espalhamento de pacotes de onda em diferentes formas de interfaces, bordas e potenciais; e, alÃm disso, (ii) os nÃveis de energia de sistemas confinados no grafeno na presenÃa ou ausÃncia de campos magnÃticos e elÃtricos externos. Na primeira parte do trabalho, nÃs utilizamos a abordagem tight-binding para estudar o espalhamento de um pacote de onda Gaussiano nas bordas de uma monocamada de grafeno (armchair e zigzag) na presenÃa de campos magnÃticos reais e pseudo-magnÃticos (induzidos por tensÃo) e tambÃm calculamos as probabilidades de transmissÃo de um pacote de onda Gaussiano atravÃs de um contato de ponto quÃntico definido por potenciais eletrostÃticos em bicamadas de grafeno. Estes cÃlculos numÃricos sÃo baseados na soluÃÃo da equaÃÃo de SchrÃdinger dependente do tempo para o Hamiltoniano do modelo tight-binding, usando a tÃcnica Split-operator. Nossa teoria permite investigar espalhamento no espaÃo recÃproco, e dependendo do tipo de borda do grafeno, nÃs observamos espalhamento dentro do mesmo vale, ou entre diferentes vales. Na presenÃa de um campo magnÃtico externo, as bem conhecidas Ãrbitas skipping orbits sÃo observadas. No entanto, nossos resultados demonstram que, no caso de um campo pseudo-magnÃtico induzido por uma tensÃo nÃo-uniforme, o espalhamento por uma borba armchair resulta em um estado de borda nÃo-propagante. NÃs tambÃm propomos um sistema de filtragem de vales muito eficiente atravÃs de um sistema de contato de ponto quÃntico definido por portas eletrostÃticas em uma bicamada de grafeno. Para o sistema de bicamadas sugerido, nÃs investigamos a forma de melhorar a eficiÃncia do sistema como um filtro de vales por diferentes parÃmetros, como comprimento, largura e amplitude do potencial aplicado. Na segunda parte da tese, nÃs apresentamos um estudo sistemÃtico dos espectros de energia de anÃis quÃnticos de grafeno com diferentes geometrias e tipos de borda, na presenÃa de um campo magnÃtico perpendicular. NÃs discutimos quais caracterÃsticas obtidas por meio de um modelo simplificado de Dirac podem ser recuperadas quando os auto-estados de anÃis quÃnticos de grafeno sÃo comparados com os resultados do modelo tight-binding. AlÃm disso, nÃs tambÃm investigamos os estados confinados em dois sistemas hÃbridos diferentes de monocamada - bicamada, identificando estados localizados dentro do ponto e estados de borda para as estruturas de confinamento em bicamadas sugeridas, assim como vamos estudar o comportamento dos nÃveis de energia em funÃÃo do tamanho do ponto e sob um campo magnÃtico externo aplicado. Finalmente, usando o modelo contÃnuo de Dirac de quatro bandas, nÃs tambÃm derivamos uma expressÃo geral para a condiÃÃo de contorno de massa infinita em bicamada de grafeno, a fim de aplicar essa condiÃÃo de contorno para calcular analiticamente os estados confinados e as correspondentes funÃÃes de onda em um ponto quÃntico em uma bicamada de grafeno na ausÃncia e na presenÃa de um campo magnÃtico perpendicular. Nossos resultados analÃticos apresentam boa concordÃncia quando comparados com os resultados tight-binding. / Graphene, a two-dimensional lattice of carbon atoms, has been widely studied during the past few years. The interest in this material is not only due to its possible future technological applications, but also because it provides the possibility to probe interesting phenomena predicted by quantum field theories, ranging from Klein tunneling and other quasi-relativistic effects to the existence of new types of electron degrees of freedom, namely, the pseudo-spin, and the existence of two inequivalent electronic valleys in the vicinity of the gapless points of its energy spectrum. Several of the exotic properties observed in graphene originate from the fact that within the low energy approximation for the tight-binding Hamiltonian of graphene, electrons behave as massless Dirac fermions, with a linear energy dispersion. Just like in single layer graphene, the low-energy eletronic spectrum in bilayer graphene is gapless, but in this case it is dominated by the parabolic dispersion. Nevertheless, one interesting feature is shared by both monolayer and bilayer graphene: the valley degree of freedom. In this thesis, we theoretically investigate: (i) the dynamic properties in mono and bilayer graphene, performing a systematic study of wave packet scattering in different interface shapes, edges and potentials; and furthermore (ii) the energy levels of confined systems in graphene in the presence or absence of external magnetic and electric fields. In the first part of the work, we use the tight-binding approach to study the scattering of a Gaussian wave packet on monolayer graphene edges (armchair and zigzag) in the presence of real and pseudo (strain induced) magnetic fields and also calculate the transmission probabilities of a Gaussian wave packet through a quantum point contact defined by electrostatic gates in bilayer graphene. These numerical calculations are based on the solution of the time-dependent SchrÃdinger equation for the tight-binding model Hamiltonian, using the Split-operator technique. Our theory allows us to investigate scattering in reciprocal space, and depending on the type of graphene edge we observe scattering within the same valley, or between different valleys. In the presence of an external magnetic field, the well known skipping orbits are observed. However, our results demonstrate that in the case of a pseudo-magnetic field, induced by non-uniform strain, the scattering by an armchair edge results in a non-propagating edge state. We propose also a very efficient valley filtering through a quantum point contact system defined by electrostatic gates in bilayer graphene. For the suggested bilayer system, we investigate how to improve the efficiency of the system as a valley filter by varying parameters, such as length, width and amplitude of the applied potential. In the second part of the thesis, we present a systematic study of the energy spectra of graphene quantum rings having different geometries and edge types, in the presence of a perpendicular magnetic field. We discuss which features obtained through a simplified Dirac model can be recovered when the eigenstates of graphene quantum rings are compared with the tight-binding results. Furthermore, we also investigate the confined states in two different hybrid monolayer - bilayer systems, identifying dot-localized states and edge states for the suggested bilayer confinement structures, as well as we will study the behavior of the energy levels as a function of dot size and under an applied external magnetic field. Finally, using the four-band continuum Dirac model, we also derive a general expression for the infinite-mass boundary condition in bilayer graphene in order to apply this boundary condition to calculate analytically the confined states and the corresponding wave functions in a bilayer graphene quantum dot in the absence and presence of a perpendicular magnetic field. Our analytic results exhibit good agreement when compared with the tight-binding ones.

Cette étude vise à améliorer la compréhension d’un phénomène observé lors de l’exploitation de réservoir de stockage de gaz naturel : la venue de sable dans le puits de forage. Cette venue de sable peut être due à des facteurs structurels ou à une fatigue du matériau suite aux cycles de pression de gaz. Ce travail se concentre sur l’aspect comportement du matériau et il est composé de plusieurs parties complémentaires. Le critère de rupture de type Drucker-Pragger est identifié en contrainte effective triaxiale sans pression de pore. Son utilisation avec pression permet ensuite d’évaluer la pression de gaz critique entrainant la rupture. Cette pression est ensuite appliquée à 80% de sa valeur pour observer si des phénomènes différés peuvent survenir. On a en effet obtenu la rupture dans plusieurs cas après avoir maintenu cette pression pendant un long laps de temps et montré que les cycles de pression endommageaient significativement le matériau. En parallèle, la perméabilité du matériau sous contrainte axiale décroît constamment, malgré sa dilatance, ce qui selon nous, confirme la venue de sable. Enfin nous avons montré que l’endommagement du matériau accroît notablement sa légère anisotropie naturelle et s’accompagne d’un impact très clair sur les couplages poro-mécaniques (coefficient de Biot). Cette partie du travail donne ainsi des outils qui pourraient être utilisés dans la description des effets structuraux induits par les variations de pression de gaz autour du forage. / This study aims to improve the understanding of the phenomenon of sand production around borehole during exploitation of natural gas storage. The source of sand may be due to structural factors or fatigue of the material because of the cyclic injection and extraction of gas pressure. This work focuses on the mechanical behaviors, transport properties and poromechanical proprieties of a sandstone. The Drucker-Pragger failure criterion is identified with triaxial effective stress without pore pressure. It can be used to evaluate the critical gas pressure causing rock failure at constant confining pressure and deviatoric stress. 80% of the critical gas pressure is then applied to observe whether different phenomenon will occur. Several cases of rupture are obtained after maintaining this gas pressure for a long time and cyclic loading-unloading of gas pressure damages the material significantly. At the meantime, the permeability of the material under axial stress decreases constantly even at volumetric dilatation stages which confirms the phenomenon of sand production. Finally, we find that mechanical damage increases its slightly natural anisotropy and it has a very significant influence on the poro-mechanical behaviors (Biot’s coefficient). This part of the work can be used to describe the structural effects induced by gas pressure variation around the borehole

No description available.

Different carbon nanostructures have different properties and different applications. It is needed to synthesize good quality and also on large scale. From the point of industrial applications, highly productive and low cost synthesis method is very essential. Research has been done extensively on the intrinsic and individual properties of both single walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) and multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWC-NTs) in the range of nanometer to micrometer length scale. The important question is how the properties change beyond this length scale and if they are used in group in the form of an array instead of the individual carbon nanotubes (CNTs). Some applications require large current output, large energy production etc. For such kind of applications, it becomes essential to use CNTs in large number in the form of arrays or array, instead of using large numbers of CNTs in individual level. Future nanotechnology scope requires large scale application using the very rich intrinsic properties of the CNTs and nanomaterials. Keeping these problems and challenges in front, this thesis work is devoted to the research of the large scale synthesis of mm long MWCNTs, having different morphology and studies on various physical properties of MWCNTs in the form of arrays. Synthesis of mm long aligned and buckled MWCNTs have been reported for the first time. Generally buckled CNTs were obtained by compressing the straight CNTs. Apart from this, different morphologies like, aligned straight, helical or coiled CNTs are also synthesized. Resistance of the individual CNT increases with the increase in length. Resistance versus length of an array of CNT also shows similar behaviour. The thermal conductivity of CNT array is observed to decrease with the increase of array diameter (diameter �100 µm). There are few reports of the similar behaviour with the experiments done on small diameter CNT arrays (diameter �100 nm). From these observations, it seems that in the arrays of CNT, their intrinsic individual property is preserved though the magnitudes are different. The conductance measurements done on buckled CNT array by compressing it to apply uniaxial strain, shows the conductance oscillation. This conductance oscillation seems to be originating from the band gap change due to strain when the CNTs bend during compression. Recent research focuses on the arrays of CNT as they can carry large current of the order of several milliamperes that make the arrays suitable in nanoscale electronics and in controlling macroscopic devices such as light emitting diodes and electromotors. Regarding this aspect, a part of this thesis work is devoted on the application of CNT array to field effect transistor (FET) and study of thermoelectric power generation using CNT arrays. The entire thesis is based on the works discussed above. It has been organized as follows: Chapter 1 deals with introduction about the different carbon nanostructures and different synthesis methods. A brief introduction about the different current-voltage (IV) characteristics of SWCNTs and MWCNTs, length and diameter dependence and effect of the mode of contacts, are given. Some applications of the array of CNTs like buckling effect on compression, stretching of CNT into the form of rope, and conduction change on compression are discussed. Application of CNT as FET, as a thermometer, and thermoelectric effect of CNT are discussed. The electromechanical effect of CNT is also discussed briefly. Chapter 2 deals with experimental setup for synthesis of different morphologies of carbon nanostructures. The samples are characterized using common characterization techniques like, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and Raman spectroscopy. A brief introduction about Raman Spectroscopy of CNT is given. Chapter 3 reports the unusual IV characteristics and breakdown of long CNT arrays. The current carrying ability and the threshold voltage as a function of array diameter are reported. The effect of the ambient like temperature and pressure are discussed. Chapter 4 deals with theoretical models to analyze the IV characteristics reported in Chapter 3. It has been shown that a set of classical equations are applicable to quantum structures and the band gap can be evaluated. Chapter 5 describes with application of CNT arrays as temperature sensors. It has been shown that CNT arrays of suitable diameters are used as temperature sensors after calibration. Chapter 6 reports the high current FET application of CNT arrays. Effects of temperature and ambient pressure are discussed. The type of the majority charge carrier is determined. Chapter 7 deals with application of CNT arrays as thermoelectric power generator to get large thermoelectric current. Effects of different array diameter are discussed. Modulation of thermoemf with gate voltage is discussed. The type of the majority charge carrier is determined. Chapter 8 reports the effect of compressive strain on buckled MWCNT arrays. Conductance is measured during the compression of the array. Quantum electromechanical conductance oscillation is observed. The structural changes are observed with SEM. Raman spectroscopic study supports the explanation of the effect. Chapter 9 provides the conclusion and overall summary of the thesis.