<p>In this research project, nanostructured composites based on Tin dioxide (SnO2) and Titanium dioxide (TiO2) with poly-4-styrene sulfonic acid (PSSA) doped polyaniline (PANI) conducting polymer has been investigated based on their structural, electrical and electrochemical properties. The synthesis of conducting polymers and their metal oxide or composites have been carried out chemically or electrochemically according to methods modified from the literature. Layer-by-layer construction of nano-Metal Oxide/PSSA doped polyaniline composites were successfully constructed by electroanalytical methods on the surface of a glassy carbon working electrode (GCE).</p>

Materials prepared on the nanoscale often exhibit many different properties compared to the same materials in their bulk-state. Interest in nanostructured materials has increased because of these properties in fields such as microelectronics, catalysis, optics and sensors. This increased interest in nanostructured materials calls for new and more precise fabrication techniques. This thesis describes how to use the porous anodic aluminium oxide as a template for the fabrication of a variety of nanostructured materials. Palladium and copper nanoparticles were deposited along the pore walls in anodic aluminum oxide using electroless deposition and atomic layer deposition. In both cases, it was possible to control the size of the nanoparticles by carefully monitoring the deposition parameters. The thesis also describes how Prussian blue nanoparticles and nanotubes can be fabricated using the anodic aluminium oxide as a template. The deposition of Prussian blue was performed by a sequential wet-chemical method. By using atomic layer deposition, it was also possible to deposit thin films of amorphous Nb2O5 on the pore walls. When the template was removed by etching, freestanding nanotubes were obtained. The anodic aluminium oxide membrane was also used as a mask for high energy (MeV) ion irradiation of an underlying substrate. The tracks produced were etched away with hydrogen fluoride. In this way, it was possible to transfer the highly ordered porous pattern from the mask onto other oxides such as SiO2 and TiO2. All fabricated structures were characterized using a variety of analysis techniques: scanning electron microscopy for evaluating sample morphology; transmission electron microscopy for better resolved investigations of the morphology; X-ray diffraction to assess crystallinity; energy dispersive spectroscopy and X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy to determine the elemental composition and identify possible contaminants. The general aim of the work described in this thesis has been to create a set of tools for use in the fabrication of a variety of nanostructured materials, whose dimensions composition can be tailored by selecting appropriate fabrication methods and parameters.

Nous avons comparé trois méthodes différentes de dopage de TiO2 à l'azote par pulvérisation cathodique, et avons exploré les propriétés structurelles, optiques et la photo-activité de ces matériaux. Tout d'abord, des films minces successifs de TiO2 et TiN ont été créés par pulvérisation d'une cible de titane et en alternant les gaz réactifs d'oxygène et d'azote dans l'enceinte de dépôt. L'épaisseur totale de chaque multicouche a été maintenue constante tandis que nous avons fait varier la composition globale des films (rapport TiN/TiO2) entre 5% et 30% et le nombre de des couches TiN/TiO2 entre 9 à 45. Deuxièmement, nous avons préparé des couches homogènes de N-TiO2 par l'introduction simultanée des gaz réactifs d'oxygène et d'azote au cours du dépôt. Nous avons systématiquement fait varier le rapport azote/oxygène afin de modifier d'une façon contrôlée la concentration de l'azote incorporé dans les films de 0% et 6%. Enfin, nous avons préparé des couches minces de TiN et les ont fait subir l'oxydation à des températures différentes pendant plusieurs intervalles de temps. Les mesures d'XPS ont montré que l'azote a été dopé avec succès, dans tous les films de TiO2, dans les sites substitutionnels et/ou interstitiels en fonction des conditions de dépôt. La variance de la concentration et la position du dopage à l'azote avait une influence significative sur les propriétés optiques, structurelles et photo-actives des trois types des films de TiO2 dopés. Les paramètres de dépôt par pulvérisation ont été optimisés grâce à des diagnostics du plasma et à un Plan d'Expériences. Cette étude a montré que nous pouvons modifier d'une façon contrôlée et à souhait plusieurs caractéristiques physiques et chimiques importantes des couches de N-TiO2, qui pourront avoir un grand potentiel pour de nombreuses applications

Increased demand of power, limited fuel resources and environmental concerns have recently prompted a huge thrust on research areas of alternative energy and photovoltaics have been hailed as energy source for future. Particularly, third generation solar cell configurations like dye-sensitized solar cells and quantum dot Schottky barrier solar cells have drawn more attention because of their ease of processability, cheap cost with decent performance, low payback time and portability. Quantum dots are very attractive materials as sensitizers because of their size dependent bandgap tunability, increased oscillator strength and hence higher absorption coefficient, possibility of multiple exciton generation and photochemical robustness. Hence syntheses of quantum dot based hybrid nanostructures have received huge attention among researchers for using it quantum dot sensitized solar cell configuration. This dissertation can be divided in two parts. In the first part two different methods have been reported to prepare interconnected mesoporous nanostructures of wide band gap semiconductors like TiO2 and ZnO which is very important in providing high surface area for absorption or attachment of the sensitizers. In the second part, methods have been developed to establish direct contacts between quantum dots and wide bandgap substrates without molecular linkers which are expected to increase the electron injection rate from quantum dots to TiO2/ZnO. The entire thesis based on the results and findings obtained from the present investigation is organised as follows: Chapter-I provides a general introduction on the working principle of different type of solar cells and then gives a detailed description of the structure and electronic process of dye sensitised solar cells. Then, benefits of quantum dots as sensitizer over dye molecules has been discussed followed by the modification needed in case of quantum dot sensitized solar cells. Chapter-II deals with the materials and methods which essentially gives the information about the materials used for the synthesis and the techniques utilized to characterize the materials chosen for the investigation. Chapter-III describes a hybrid sol-gel combustion technique to synthesize large quantities of highly crystalline and phase-pure anatase powder in a single step. Titanium isopropoxide reacts with oleic acid to form a viscous liquid (oxocarboxoalkoxide) which undergoes non-hydrolytic polycondensation to form TiO2 during combustion. Oleylamine takes part in formation of reverse micelle which expands during combustion giving rise to porous interconnected membrane like microstructure of pore size ~5 nm, BET surface area of ~100 m2/g and porosity of ~ 48%. More importantly, this porous powder having a pre-existing network can be used to form thicker film by doctor blade technique from its paste and at the same time is expected to have better transport properties due to its less particulate nature. Chapter-IV presents a general method to prepare mesoporous structure from rod-like morphologies by partial sintering of a green pellet. Material having inherent anisotropy in their crystal structure tends to grow in a particular direction rather undergoing equiaxial growth. For instance, hexagonal ZnO and tetragonal rutile usually grow as rod-shaped particles. A loose compact of these nanorods give nanoporous morphology upon heating. Advantage of this method is the tunability of pore size by tuning the aspect ratio of the nanorods. Preparation of porous TiO2, ZnO and hydroxyapatite has been demonstrated from their corresponding nanorods. Chapter-V deals with a solvothermal based technique that has been developed for in-situ deposition of nanoparticles on any plane or curved surfaces conformally. This has been demonstrated for nanoparticles of FeCo, Au, Co, CdS on substrates like glass, mica, Si, NaCl, Al2O3 M-plane and also conformal coating of Au nanoparticles on polystyrene latex spheres. CdSe on rutile nanorods, ZnO nanorods and CNTs are promising hybrid nanostructures for third generation photovoltaics and their successful preparation has been detailed in the chapter. The mechanism proposed is based on dominant attractive sphere-plate interaction under high temperature and high autogeneous pressure condition which at reduced density and surface tension of the solvent reduces the dispersibility of the nanoparticle and allow effective spreading of the nanoparticles on the substrate. This method is also advantageous for coating of complicated geometry like inner walls of porous structures. Chapter-VI presents a method to coat chalcogenide nanoparticles on mesoporous TiO2 without any molecular linker which can enhance the electron injection rate from the chalcogenide quantum dots to TiO2. CdS, PbS can be easily synthesized through aqueous chemistry. For deposition of these sulfides, the ion layer gas absorption and reaction (IGLAR) method was modified to form uniform dense nanoparticles on anatase and ZnO surfaces. Nitrate salts of corresponding metal ions are dried directly on the semiconductor surface and instead of exposing it to H2S gas, it was treated with a concentrated sulfide solution. This introduces two competitive process i) dissolution of nitrate salt ii) formation of the metal sulfide. This dissolution step was absent when treated with H2S gas (IGLAR) and hence lead to a continuous coating. We have successfully produced CdS-TiO2 and PbS-TiO2 composites using this approach. Photoelectrochemical measurements on CdSTiO2 composites show an overall efficiency of 2.8% which is among the highest values obtained for this system demonstrating the applicability of the method to engineer interfaces to achieve high efficiency solar cells. Chapter-VI explores the combination of strategies of nanocrystal conversion chemistry with previously described sol-gel combustion technique to create dense and uniformly coated QD sensitized TiO2 electrode without compromising heat-treatment routines which is essential for better adhesion and to enhance performance with reduced leakage. Intimate biphasic oxide mixtures of PbO and CdO with TiO2 are first synthesized by nonhydrolytic solgel process with is followed by combustion to produce porous morphology. This powder can be coated as electrode and can sustain high temperature heat treatment routines and finally can be selectively converted to sulfides with Na2S treatment as TiO2 is immune to sulfidation under this condition. Materials at different stages are characterised by XRD, TEM, EDS, UV-Vis and XPS.

Pure aluminium and aluminium-5wt % TiO2 aluminium foams were produced by powder metallurgy technique with the use of TiH2 as foaming agent. Two sizes of TiH2 were used: 20&micro / m and 3&micro / m. It has been confirmed that high level of compaction is the primary requirement in foaming. It was shown that hot swaging could be used as a method of compaction for foaming as it leads to values close to full density. Pure aluminium foamed at 675&deg / C and 725&deg / C leads to a volume expansion between 90-180 %. A model was developed for pure aluminium to explain the pore initiation and the resultant pore size. The model predicts a critical particle size for TiH2 below which bubbles could not form. The size appears to be in the neighborhood of 30&micro / m for 675&deg / C and 6&micro / m for 725&deg / C and is temperature dependent. Equilibrium pore size appears to be a function of TiH2 particle size and not affected significantly by the temperature of foaming. It has also been shown that depth effect, i.e. hydrostatic pressure of liquid metal, is unimportant in foaming process and can be neglected. According to the model, to produce pores of fine sizes, two requirements must be met: use of fine foaming agent and the use of high foaming temperature. Al-5 wt % TiO2 was foamed at 750&deg / C and 800&deg / C, i.e. at temperatures that yield viscosities similar to pure aluminium. The structure of foamed metal and level of foaming, 120-160%, was similar to pure aluminium. Unlike pure aluminium, internal reactions are dominant feature of TiO2 stabilized systems. Solid content of the system increases as a result of internal reactions between Al-Ti and Al- TiO2. When this change occurs, however, is not known. It is possible that the viscosity of the system may be four times of its original value.

Des composés organiques persistants sont contenus dans de nombreux effluents industriels, dans les lixiviats de décharge ou dans les effluents hospitaliers. La non biodégradabilités de ces composés a entraîné le développement de nouveaux procédés épuratoires. Certaines techniques d'oxydation avancée sont désormais une étape essentielle des filières de traitement.(H2O2/UV, O3/UV). La photocatalyse hétérogène pourrait être une alternative intéressante à ces techniques car elle permet, entre autres, la minéralisation de la plupart des composés organiques connus. <br /> Si le procédé est maîtrisé en conditions de laboratoire, il faut à présent le mettre en œuvre à plus grande échelle et concevoir un réacteur pilote préindustriel.<br /> La réaction photocatalytique est un processus hétérogène qui nécessite l'adsorption des polluants à la surface du catalyseur. L'adsorption de phénol (polluant modèle de l'étude) à la surface de catalyseurs à base de TiO2 en suspension ou supporté a donc été étudiée. L'étude de la dégradation du phénol par différents « médias » photocatalytiques dans un réacteur de laboratoire, de volume 1L, parfaitement agité a ensuite été effectuée. L'activité photocatalytique des catalyseurs supportés a été quantifiée en présence ou non d'un perturbateur organique. Enfin, la conception et la mise en œuvre d'un nouveau type de photoréacteur pilote a été présentée. Il a été caractérisé en termes de cinétique de dégradation du phénol et de rendement énergétique.

L'objet de cette thèse est l'étude par spectroscopie Raman de la taille et la distribution de taille de nanopoudres de TiO2 anatase. L'utilisation de plusieurs techniques de synthèse (chimie douce, microémulsion inverse, synthèse hydrothermale continu) a permis d'obtenir des matériaux dont la taille (de 3 à 20 nm), la forme, la phase sont parfaitement contrôlées et avec une distribution de taille resserrée. L'utilisation des modes optiques à travers le suivi de la raie Eg de l'anatase est la méthode la plus employée pour déterminer la taille des nanocristaux. Cependant, cette raie est entre autres sensible à la non-stoechiométrie. Afin de s'affranchir de ces effets, l'analyse des modes acoustique a été réalisée. Les distributions de taille obtenues par spectroscopie Raman sont comparées avec celles obtenues par MET. L'influence de l'état d'adsorption de la surface des nanocristaux de TiO2 a également été étudiée par spectroscopie Raman in situ.

Στην παρούσα εργασία μελετάται η αντίδραση αναγωγής των οξειδίων του αζώτου με προπυλένιο σε ισχυρά οξειδωτικές συνθήκες με χρήση καταλυτών Rh υποστηριγμένων σε τροποποιημένους φορείς TiO2 με ιόντα διαφορετικού σθένους (W6+ ή Ca2+) από το μητρικό κατιόν (Ti4+). Η τροποποίηση του φορέα επιτεύχθηκε με την διάχυση των ενισχυτικών κατιόντων στο κρυσταλλικό πλέγμα του TiO2 σε υψηλές θερμοκρασίες. Στους φορείς που παρασκευάστηκαν πραγματοποιήθηκαν μετρήσεις ειδικής επιφάνειας (ΒΕΤ), κρυσταλλικής δομής (XRD), ειδικής αγωγιμότητας (AC-Impedance) καθώς και μετρήσεις επιφανειακής οξύτητας (TPD-MS). Σε γενικές γραμμές η ενίσχυση του φορέα TiO2 έχει σαν αποτέλεσμα την διατήρηση της ειδικής επιφάνειας, την αύξηση της επιφανειακής οξύτητας, και την αλλαγή της ειδικής αγωγιμότητας σε σχέση με τον μη ενισχυμένο φορέα. Οι υποστηριγμένοι καταλύτες Rh παρασκευάστηκαν με την μέθοδο του υγρού εμποτισμού από νιτρική πρόδρομη ένωση. Οι καταλύτες που παρασκευάστηκαν χαρακτηρίστηκαν ως προς την διασπορά της ενεργού φάσης καθώς και του μέσου μεγέθους των κρυσταλλιτών του μετάλλου με χημορόφηση H2. Η σύγκριση των καταλυτών με βάση την ενεργότητα τους για την αναγωγή του ΝΟ καθώς και την εκλεκτικότητά τους σε Ν2, έδειξε δύο διαφορετικές δράσεις της ενίσχυσης. Ενίσχυση με ιόντα W6+, οδηγεί σε αύξηση της ενεργότητας με παράλληλη ελαφρά αύξηση της εκλεκτικότητας σε Ν2. Η ενίσχυση του καταλύτη με ιόντα Ca2+ οδηγεί σε αύξηση της ενεργότητας για την αναγωγή του ΝΟ με παράλληλη όμως, σημαντική μείωση της εκλεκτικότητας σε Ν2. Η συμπεριφορά αυτή ερμηνεύτηκε με βάση το θεωρητικό υπόβαθρο που περιγράφει τις τροποποιήσεις των ηλεκτρονιακών ιδιοτήτων του φορέα και είναι γνωστό ως φαινομένου DIMSI. Η βελτίωση των καταλυτικών ιδιοτήτων που παρουσιάζουν οι ενισχυμένοι καταλύτες έδωσε το ερέθισμα για την μελέτη του μηχανισμού της αντίδρασης για την αναγωγή του ΝΟ με προπυλένιο στους καταλύτες αυτούς καθώς και τις διαφορές που παρουσιάζουν σε σχέση με τον μη-ενισχυμένο καταλύτη. Η μελέτη του μηχανισμού πραγματοποιήθηκε με χρήση των τεχνικών υπέρυθρης φασματοσκοπίας (FTΙR) και φασματοσκοπίας μάζας (Mass Spectroscopy). Σε γενικές γραμμές τα αποτελέσματα δείχνουν ότι το ΝΟ ροφάται μοριακά σε κέντρα Rh. Παρουσία ανηγμένων κέντρων το ΝΟ διασπάται προς ατομικά ροφημένα είδη Ν και Ο. Ανα-συνδυασμένη εκρόφηση των ειδών Ν οδηγούν στον σχηματισμό Ν2 στην αέρια φάση, ενώ παραγωγή του Ν2Ο σχετίζεται με την δημιουργία του συμπλόκου είδους Rh(NO)2. Η αναγέννηση των ενεργών κέντρων επιτυγχάνεται με την μερική οξείδωση του προπυλενίου σε οξειδωμένα κέντρα Rh αρχικά προς ακρολεϊνη. Περαιτέρω οξείδωση της ακρολεϊνης οδηγεί στον σχηματισμό θραυσμάτων COO- και CHx με τον ενδιάμεσο σχηματισμό ειδών του τύπου του ακρυλικού οξέος. / In the present study, the catalytic reduction of NO with propylene in the presence of excess oxygen was examined, over Rh catalysts supported on doped TiO2 carriers with tungsten or calcium cations. Doped TiO2 carriers were prepared employing the solid state diffusion technique at elevated temperatures. Characterization of doped carriers consisted of specific surface (BET) area and crystalline mode (XRD) measurements as well as measurements of the specific conductivity (AC-Impedance) and surface acidity (TPD-MS). In general, doping TiO2 results in an increase of the surface acidity, in alterations of specific conductivity and in the preservation of the specific surface in a manner, which depends on dopant concentration and calcinations temperature. Supported Rh catalysts were prepared following the wet impregnation method using Rh(NO3)3 as the precursor metal compound. Characterization of the prepared catalysts consisted of dispersion and mean metal crystalline size measurements, employing hydrogen chemisorption at ambient temperature. Comparison of the doped catalysts, as far as the activity toward NO reduction and the selectivity to N2 is concerned, shows two different behaviors. Doping with W6+ cations results in higher NO reduction activity with a slightly increase of selectivity toward dinitrogen formation. Doping with Ca2+ leads to higher catalytic activity for the reduction of NO, while the selectivity was found to decrease upon increasing calcium content. The above observations are explained by the theory of dopant induced metal support interactions (DIMSI). The mechanistic pathways of the above mentioned reaction over Rh/TiO2 catalysts were studied employing infrared (IR) and mass spectroscopy (MS). The results showed, that NO is molecularly absorbed on the Rh. In the presence of reduced Rh sites NO dissociation occurs, resulting in N and O adspecies. Recombination of N species results in the production of dinitrogen in the gas phase. N2O formation is correlated with the presence of the dinitrosyl complex species on the catalytic surface. Reaction of the latter with NO from the gas phase leads to N2O production. Regeneration of oxidized Rh sites is achieved via oxidation of propylene to acrolein. Further oxidation of the latter leads to the formation of carboxylates.

This work describes multiband photon detection techniques based on novel semiconductor device concepts and detector designs with simultaneous detection of dierent wavelength radiation such as UV and IR. One aim of this investigation is to examine UV and IR detection concepts with a view to resolve some of the issues of existing IR detectors such as high dark current, non uniformity, and low operating temperature and to avoid having additional optical components such as filters in multiband detection. Structures were fabricated to demonstrate the UV and IR detection concepts and determine detector parameters: (i) UV/IR detection based on GaN/AlGaN heterostructures, (ii) Optical characterization of p-type InP thin films were carried out with the idea of developing InP based detectors, (iii) Intervalence band transitions in InGaAsP/InP heterojunction interfacial workfunction internal photoemission (HEIWIP) detectors. Device concepts, detector structures, and experimental results are discussed. In order to reduce reflection, TiO2 and SiO2 nanostructured thin film characterization and application of these as anti-reflection coatings on above mentioned detectors is also discussed.

<p>In this research project, nanostructured composites based on Tin dioxide (SnO2) and Titanium dioxide (TiO2) with poly-4-styrene sulfonic acid (PSSA) doped polyaniline (PANI) conducting polymer has been investigated based on their structural, electrical and electrochemical properties. The synthesis of conducting polymers and their metal oxide or composites have been carried out chemically or electrochemically according to methods modified from the literature. Layer-by-layer construction of nano-Metal Oxide/PSSA doped polyaniline composites were successfully constructed by electroanalytical methods on the surface of a glassy carbon working electrode (GCE).</p>