Les Hautes Steppes comportent un grand nombre de fortifications dont beaucoup ont été attribuées à l’époque byzantine. Parmi elles, de grandes forteresses ont livré des dédicaces renseignant sur leur statut officiel, mais, on rencontre également de très nombreux « fortins ». Devant ce corpus composé de constructions aux caractéristiques très variées, la sériation, selon des critères architecturaux notamment, suivie de la recherche de corrélations entre les séries, apparaissait comme la méthode la plus efficace pour arriver à des résultats probants. Seul a ensuite été poursuivi l’examen des séries pouvant raisonnablement être étudiées dans le contexte byzantin. La distribution géographique de chacune d’entre elle a été examinée et des analyses spatiales ont été réalisées grâce à l’outil SIG. Ce travail a permis la mise en évidence de plusieurs réseaux dont les schémas d’implantation évoluent avec le temps. Il semblerait qu’on soit passé de la forteresse symbole d’un pouvoir qui se voulait fort, s’appuyant sur des lignes de défense naturelles, à des réseaux de surveillance peut-être plus adaptés à la particularité des ennemis des Byzantins, les Maures, puis les Arabes, réputés très mobiles et, de ce fait, difficiles à contrôler. La nouvelle approche des réseaux qui est proposée met en lumière une vision un peu moins négative de l’Afrique byzantine. Il y avait certes de nombreux problèmes de sécurité, mais les représentants du pouvoir byzantin n’ont peut-être pas abandonné l’Afrique à son sort sans tenter d’apporter des solutions. / Tunisian High Steppes include a great number of fortifications. For many of them, a date in the Byzantine period was proposed. On few large ones, inscriptions indicating official status were found, but there are also numerous under-studied little « fortlets ». These constructions are quite different. A serial handling, based on architectural standards specifically, has been carried out. Only the series which can reasonably be attributed to the byzantine period have been examined in greater detail. Their geographical distribution has been studied and spatial analysis have been done, using a Geographical Information System (GIS). Thanks to this work, it is possible to identify successive networks. Their settlement plans seem to have changed, from the time when the fortress was considered as a power symbol and installed near natural lines of defense. It evolved to probably more adapted surveillance networks. Indeed, the Byzantine’s enemies were Moorish tribes and Arabs, known to be mobile people and considered hard to control. This new approach of fortifications networks highlights a less negative vision of Byzantine Africa. There were certainly great security problems, but Byzantine representatives doesn’t seem to have let Africans to their own without trying to bring solutions.

L'étude théorique de l'impact de la brevetabilité sur l'innovation pharmaceutique révèle des relations ambivalentes. D'où l'intérêt de cibler l'étude sur un pays en particulier. La croissance notable que connaît l'industrie pharmaceutique locale, l'accent mis par l'Etat sur le développement de la R&D et de l'innovation pharmaceutique et l'abscence d'études antérieures sur cette question, sont autant de facteurs qui font de la Tunisie un cas intéressant pour analyser l'impact de la brevetabilité des médicaments sur l'innovation pharmaceutique locale. Après avoir analysé le potentiel d'innovation pharmaceutique endogène et exogène en Tunisie, d'abord, à travers une analyse descritive du Système Sectoriel National d'Innovation (SSNI) en Tunisie, puis à l'aide d'une enquête menée auprès des laboratoires pharmaceutiques locaux, nous avons construit un indice mesurant leurs potentiels de l'innovation pour en déterminer l'impact la brevetabilité. Les résultats empiriques montrent que la brevetabilité n'est une incitation à l'innovation que si la firme (l'industrie ou l'économie) se transforme d'une "imitatrice nette" en une "innovatrice nette". L'analyse empirique montre que l'industrie pharmaceutique tunisienne étant encore "imitatrice nette", à court terme, la brevetabilité des médicaments a un impact négatif sur l'innovation locale et apparaît comme une réforme "prématurée" à ce stade de développement. Tandis qu'à long terme, l'impact dépendra de l'efficacité du SSNI à mettre en place des moyens alternatifs d'accès aux technologies nouvelles à travers la création d'une dynamique d'attractivité aux investissements étrangers "innovation seeking". Les développements théoriques, les résultats empiriques et les enseignements tirés d'expériences étrangères suggèrent que ceci est d'autant plus réalisable que la Tunisie adopte une politique technologique plus ciblée et mieux réfléchie pour créer un véritable "marché" de l'innovation pharmaceutique, et ce à travers la dynamisation des interactions entre les acteurs publics et privés du SSNI. / The theoretical study of the impact of patentability on pharmaceutical innovation reveals ambivalent relationships. Thus, it is interesting to target the analysis on a particular country. The notable growth of the local pharmaceutical industry, the emphasis put by the State on the encouragement of pharmaceutical R&D and the absence of previous studies on this issue, are as many factors that make from the Tunisian pharmaceutical industry an interesting cas study of the impact of drugs patentability on pharmaceutical innovation. After having studied the endogenous and exogenous innovation potential in Tunisia, first throughout an analysis of the sectoral national innovation system (SNIS), then according to a survey led next to the pharmaceutical laboratories in Tunisia, we have constructed an index measuring their innovation potential and performances and determined the impact of patentability. The empirical results show that patentability is an incentive for innovation only if the firm (industry, economy) transforms from a "net imitator" into a "net innovator". The Tunisian pharmaceutical industry being at a stage of a net imitator, drugs patentability generates a negative effect on local innovation on the short run and seems a premature reform in Tunisia. However, in the long run, the impact depends on the efficiency of the SNIS in putting into effect alternative means to access new technologies by creating a dynamic of attraction towards pharmaceutical foreign investments "innovation seeking". The theoretical developments, the empirical results and the lessons taught from foreign experiences suggest that this is as much realizable as the Tunisian state adopts a technological policy more targeted and better thought in a sense of creating a genuine "market" for pharmaceutical innovation, throughout valorizing the human capital and boosting the interactions between the public and private actors of the SNIS.

The aim of this thesis is to introduce the Maghreb countries and the historical background and current events to clarify the common issues between the two shores of the Mediterranean Sea. Specifically, this thesis introduces the relations between Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Mauritania, Libya with their former colonial power, France. Although Libya differs in many aspects from the other Maghreb countries, it cannot be isolated in the region. Thus this thesis, with the emphasis to the differences, takes Libya also in account. This thesis also aims to define the current foreign policy of France towards the Maghreb countries and outlines the strengths and weaknesses of current and future mutual cooperation.

The Islamist movements operate in all the countries of the Middle East and North Africa region. The mother organization, which is also best-known among the movements, is the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt, whose ideas spread quickly into other countries in the region. Although the Islamist movements are ideologically different, they have one similar attribute - focus on various social issues as well as the fact that they originally profiled as charity organizations and they have only recently entered the political scene. The main goal of this diploma thesis is to analyze and compare the activities and achievements of the Muslim Brotherhood (The Freedom and Justice party) and The Movement of Islamic Tendency (The Ennadhda party) within the political systems in Egypt and Tunisia. The thesis also aims at verifying explanatory cleavage of Islamist electorate based on the cleavage theory within Egypt and Tunisia. The biggest success of the Islamist movements so far meant the changes after the Arab Spring. Following this event the Islamist movements won the first free parliamentary election in both countries. However, the political activities of the Muslim Brotherhood did not last so long in Egypt - nowadays the movement exists only illegally and it has been in a difficult position. On the contrary, the...

Dans le cadre de leurs démarches de modernisation, les entreprises tunisiennes sont à la recherche d’un modèle de gestion efficace de leurs Ressources Humaines permettant, au-delà de la flexibilité et des restructurations nécessaires, d’assurer un développement de leurs performances, ainsi qu’une sécurisation des parcours professionnels de leurs salariés. L’hypothèse centrale que nous avons déterminée comme réponse à cette problématique est la suivante : la rénovation de Gestion des Ressources Humaines, par la mise en place d’une politique de développement de l’employabilité, aide les entreprises tunisiennes à faire progresser leur performance sociale et économique et à sécuriser les parcours professionnels de leurs salariés.Les résultats de cette recherche mettent tout d’abord en évidence les principales difficultés de modernisation de Gestion des Ressources Humaines au sein des entreprises tunisiennes (managériales, structurelles, institutionnels et culturelles), puis l’apport de développement de l’employabilité pour la rénovation des pratiques de GRH et à l’accroissement de performances sociales et économiques à moyen et à long terme et, enfin, les conditions nécessaires à l’intégration d’une politique de développement de l’employabilité à la GRH. / As part of their efforts to modernize the Tunisian companies are looking for a model of effective management of their human resources with, beyond restructuring and flexibility necessary to ensure development of their performance and a career security of their employees. The central hypothesis we have determined as a response to this problem is: the renovation of Human Resource Management, for the establishment of a policy of development of employability, with Tunisian companies to advance their performance social and economic security and career paths for their employees.The results of this research are first identified the major challenges of modernizing human resources management in the Tunisian firms (managerial, structural, institutional and cultural) and the provision of employability development for renovation Human Resource Management practices and increasing social and economic performance in the medium and longer term and finally the conditions for the integration of a development policy employability of HRM.

Export-led growth is important for a number of reasons. At a macro-economic level, it can create profit, allowing a country to balance its finances and manage its debt. Export-led growth can also lead to higher productivity and job creation. At a micro-economic level, exports and export-led growth lead to higher competitiveness and business growth. From an exporter’s perspective, however, participation in the global economy and export to new foreign markets bring with them the challenge of acquiring the required knowledge of an unknown market. Relevant information gathered has to be subjected to analysis and interpretation before it can be applied to strategic business decisions regarding the company and its market. This study proposes that Competitive Intelligence (CI) be used as an instrument to determine the types of export information that exporters require, as it focuses on exporters’ information requirements and enhances their competitiveness. The increasingly competitive business environment places increasing demands on Trade Promotion Organisations (TPOs) to make better use of resources available in order to tailor products and services to the needs of exporters. TPOs are amongst the main sources of information and export assistance for exporters. Other export information sources include publications and a variety of human sources. The assistance of TPOs can take the form of various export-promotion instruments, such as market research, trade fairs and business introductions. TPOs face various challenges, including that of scarce resources. Therefore, such resources must be utilised optimally and in order to achieve efficiency, Realistic Export Opportunities (REOs) need to be prioritised. This study stresses the importance of export diversification and the export of manufactured goods. Export diversification brings its own challenges including the question of which products to promote for export. The application of a Decision Support Model developed by Cuyvers et al. (1995:173) for South Africa identified a number of REOs. Amongst these was the export of South Africanmanufactured extruders to Tunisia. Against the background of the importance of export growth, the types of information that exporters use and the sources of such information were determined by means of a survey of extruder manufacturers, TPOs and users of extruders. With the export potential of extruders to Tunisia as an REO as focus, a market study was conducted using the case study research method. Results of the survey indicate that the only type of information that extruder manufacturers as potential new exporters in South Africa seek on a continuous basis is competitor information, specifically pricing information. However, the findings indicate that this is not typically the type of information supplied by TPOs in South Africa. Furthermore there is no evidence that extruder manufacturers have processes in place to monitor markets and competitors, or to identify key types of information. Concerning the case study, it was found that there is indeed a potential market for extruders in Tunisia and that the industries in which extruders are typically used are significant and growing. It was however also found that there are high trade barriers and high market concentration. Therefore, in terms of an export-promotion strategy for TPOs, an offensive exportpromotion strategy is proposed. In terms of further research, this study points to a need for research of this nature to extend to the wider capital equipment industry. It is further recommended that market profiles of the markets that show the most potential for specific products produced and manufactured in South Africa as evident from the results of Rossouw, Steenkamp, Viviers and Cuyvers (2010) be compiled. / Thesis (Ph.D. (International Trade))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2010.

Export-led growth is important for a number of reasons. At a macro-economic level, it can create profit, allowing a country to balance its finances and manage its debt. Export-led growth can also lead to higher productivity and job creation. At a micro-economic level, exports and export-led growth lead to higher competitiveness and business growth. From an exporter’s perspective, however, participation in the global economy and export to new foreign markets bring with them the challenge of acquiring the required knowledge of an unknown market. Relevant information gathered has to be subjected to analysis and interpretation before it can be applied to strategic business decisions regarding the company and its market. This study proposes that Competitive Intelligence (CI) be used as an instrument to determine the types of export information that exporters require, as it focuses on exporters’ information requirements and enhances their competitiveness. The increasingly competitive business environment places increasing demands on Trade Promotion Organisations (TPOs) to make better use of resources available in order to tailor products and services to the needs of exporters. TPOs are amongst the main sources of information and export assistance for exporters. Other export information sources include publications and a variety of human sources. The assistance of TPOs can take the form of various export-promotion instruments, such as market research, trade fairs and business introductions. TPOs face various challenges, including that of scarce resources. Therefore, such resources must be utilised optimally and in order to achieve efficiency, Realistic Export Opportunities (REOs) need to be prioritised. This study stresses the importance of export diversification and the export of manufactured goods. Export diversification brings its own challenges including the question of which products to promote for export. The application of a Decision Support Model developed by Cuyvers et al. (1995:173) for South Africa identified a number of REOs. Amongst these was the export of South Africanmanufactured extruders to Tunisia. Against the background of the importance of export growth, the types of information that exporters use and the sources of such information were determined by means of a survey of extruder manufacturers, TPOs and users of extruders. With the export potential of extruders to Tunisia as an REO as focus, a market study was conducted using the case study research method. Results of the survey indicate that the only type of information that extruder manufacturers as potential new exporters in South Africa seek on a continuous basis is competitor information, specifically pricing information. However, the findings indicate that this is not typically the type of information supplied by TPOs in South Africa. Furthermore there is no evidence that extruder manufacturers have processes in place to monitor markets and competitors, or to identify key types of information. Concerning the case study, it was found that there is indeed a potential market for extruders in Tunisia and that the industries in which extruders are typically used are significant and growing. It was however also found that there are high trade barriers and high market concentration. Therefore, in terms of an export-promotion strategy for TPOs, an offensive exportpromotion strategy is proposed. In terms of further research, this study points to a need for research of this nature to extend to the wider capital equipment industry. It is further recommended that market profiles of the markets that show the most potential for specific products produced and manufactured in South Africa as evident from the results of Rossouw, Steenkamp, Viviers and Cuyvers (2010) be compiled. / Thesis (Ph.D. (International Trade))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2010.

Depuis la fin du 19ème siècle, l’espace minier de Gafsa (Sud-Ouest de Tunisie) s’est spécialisé dans la mono-activité de l’extraction et l’enrichissement du phosphate pour des raisons de profits économiques certains. Avec ces exportations, l’espace a subi une dégradation intense des ressources du sol, de la couverture végétale et une détérioration avancée des zones agricoles. La gestion des infrastructures minières n’a pas su répondre aux normes environnementales et a provoqué ainsi des inégalités sociales et spatiales et a accentué le niveau des risques environnementaux.L’activité minière a été à l’origine de la naissance et de la genèse des villes minières dans le Bassin Minier de Gafsa (BMG). La formation de cités spontanées a provoqué la désarticulation du tissu urbain. Les extensions urbaines notamment l’expansion des quartiers anarchiques, s’étendant vers les laveries et vers les mines, ont créé ainsi des conflits avec le domaine phosphatier. Tenant compte de la complexité des multiples aspects sociaux, spatiaux et environnementaux du BMG, nous avons utilisé à la fois l’approche géographique classique et l’approche géomatique qui nous a semblé appropriée pour aider à la prise de décision. L’intérêt de cette dernière approche permet d’identifier, d’analyser, et de modéliser l’état des lieux, les mutations urbaines et environnementales en relation avec la croissance spatiale-minière. Les principaux résultats permettent d’avoir une banque de données statistiques et cartographiques, à différentes échelles, pour une vision synthétique et une meilleure compréhension du BMG et de réaliser un modèle d’aide à la décision. / Since the end of the 19th century, the mining area of Gafsa (south-west Tunisia) has specialized in the single-activity extraction and enrichment of phosphate for reasons of economic profits. With these exports, this area has suffered an intense degradation of soil resources, vegetation cover and an advanced deterioration of agricultural areas. The management of the mining infrastructure has failed to meet environmental standards, causing social and spatial inequalities and increasing the level of environmental risks.The mining activity was at the origin of the birth and genesis of the mining towns in the Basin of Gafsa (BMG). The formation of spontaneous cities has caused the disarticulation of the urbanization. Urban extensions, including the expansion of anarchic cities, extending to laundries and to mines, thus created conflicts with the phosphatier domain. All these factors make costly and complicated attempts at development and rehabilitation that mining companies do not dare to commit.Taking into account the complexity of the many social, spatial and environmental aspects of the BMG, we used both the classical geographical approach and the geomatics approach that seemed appropriate for better decision-making. The interest of this latter approach makes it possible to identify, analyze, and model the state of the sites, the urban and environmental mutations in relation to the spatial-mining growth.

Le tourisme première industrie mondiale, avec 1186 millions d’arrivées internationaux en 2015, est reconnu comme secteur prioritaire de développement des pays les moins avancés, à travers ses effets directs, indirects et induits. La Tunisie a opté depuis la fin des années 60 pour se développer à travers des activités touristiques. Depuis le début des années 70, le tourisme représente un secteur clef de l’économie tunisienne, le taux de couverture du déficit de la balance des paiements a atteint 97.7% en 1988. Toutefois et depuis le début des années 2000, le tourisme tunisien, souffre d’une image de marque de basse qualité, d’une forte dépendance vis-à-vis du marché européen, et des grands Tours Opérateurs et d’un manque de diversification. Les performances de ce secteur longtemps considéré comme vecteur de croissance économique, semblent être surestimées.Pour dépasser ces problèmes, depuis la fin des années 80, l’État a choisi une stratégie nationale de diversification à travers la mise en tourisme du Sud de la Tunisie. Actuellement, cette partie du pays est devenue une zone touristique de haut standing avec, notamment, un terrain de golf de 150 hectares et un aéroport international. Toutefois, le choix d’un développement axé sur les activités touristiques suscite des inquiétudes, vu les caractéristiques du milieu saharien, et la façon dont le tourisme saharien est commercialisé.Cette thèse a pour objet d'étudier du point de vue de l'analyse économique et d'évaluer la pertinence des choix stratégiques qui ont été faits dans le secteur du tourisme, notamment en zone saharienne, en tenant compte de la nature du milieu caractérisé par un climat aride. L’impact économique, environnemental et social du tourisme sur ces milieux fragiles pourrait être particulièrement critique.Du point de vue économique: d’un côté, ce choix correspond à une marchandisation d’un stock naturel épuisable, dont l’existence est conditionnée par l’accès à l’eau, ce qui a créé des situations de concurrence et de conflits d’usage de la ressource entre les deux secteurs touristique et agricole. D’un autre côté, la courte durée de séjour qui ne dépasse pas les 1.3 jours, peut limiter les retombées positives du tourisme dans ces régions.Du point de vue de l’environnement: le caractère rival mais non exclusif de l’eau le situerait dans la catégorie des « biens communs » dont la disponibilité peut être influencé par les « effets de masse », ce qui nous conduit à envisager un risque de « tragédie des communs ».Sur le plan social: à côté des distorsions sociales qui peuvent naître face à des situations de conflits d’usage autour de la ressource, les emplois crées dans le secteur sont saisonniers peu qualifiés, ce qui peut nuire à un vrai processus de développement local dans ces régions.Dans nos analyses, nous avons utilisé plusieurs outils et approches méthodologiques de caractères théoriques et empiriques dans un cadre macroéconomique. Nous avons mobilisé essentiellement les techniques de cointégration et les modèles à correction d’erreur adaptés à l’étude des séries temporelles en plus des analyses statistiques, sur la période 1970- 2014. / Tourism, the world's leading industry with 1186 million international arrivals in 2015, is recognized as the priority sector of development of the LCDs (Least Developed Countries) through its direct, indirect and induced effects. Since the late 1960s, Tunisia has opted for a development strategy based on tourism activities. Since the early 1970s, tourism has been a key sector of the Tunisian economy: the deficit’s rate of coverage of the payments’ balance reached 97.7% in 1988. However, since the early 2000s, Tunisian tourism suffers from a low quality brand image, a strong dependence on the European market and major tour operators and a lack of diversification. The achievements of this sector, which has been for a long time considered as a vector of economic growth, seem to be overestimated.To overcome these problems, the State has chosen, since the late 1980s, a national strategy of diversification through the setting in tourism of Southern Tunisia. Currently, this part of the country became a tourist area of high standards including a golf course of 150 hectares and an international airport. However, the choice of tourism-oriented development is of concern, given the characteristics of the Saharan environment and the way in which Saharan tourism is marketed.This thesis aims to analyze, from an economic point of view, and to evaluate the suitability and relevance of the strategic choices which have been made in the tourism sector, particularly in the Saharan zone, taking into account the nature of the milieu characterized by an arid climate. The economic, environmental and social impact of tourism on these fragile environments could be particularly critical.Economically: on the one hand, this choice corresponds to a commodification of an exhaustible natural stock, whose existence is conditioned by access to water, which has created rivalry and conflicts in the use of the resource between the two sectors, namely, tourism and agriculture. On the other hand, the short duration of stay which does not exceed on average 1.3 days, can limit the positive fallout of tourism in these regions.Environmentally: the rival but not exclusive character of water would place it in the category of "common goods" whose availability can be influenced by the "mass effects", which leads us to consider a risk of "tragedy of commons".Socially: in addition to the social distortions that can arise in situations of usage conflicts around the resource, the jobs created in this sector are seasonal and low-skilled, which may negatively affect a real local development process in these regions.In our analyses, we used several theoretical and empirical methodological tools and approaches within a macroeconomic framework. We have mainly used cointegration techniques and error correction models adapted to the study of time series in addition to statistical analyses over the period between 1970 and 2014.

Dans le cadre de leurs démarches de modernisation, les entreprises tunisiennes sont à la recherche d’un modèle de gestion efficace de leurs Ressources Humaines permettant, au-delà de la flexibilité et des restructurations nécessaires, d’assurer un développement de leurs performances, ainsi qu’une sécurisation des parcours professionnels de leurs salariés. L’hypothèse centrale que nous avons déterminée comme réponse à cette problématique est la suivante : la rénovation de Gestion des Ressources Humaines, par la mise en place d’une politique de développement de l’employabilité, aide les entreprises tunisiennes à faire progresser leur performance sociale et économique et à sécuriser les parcours professionnels de leurs salariés.Les résultats de cette recherche mettent tout d’abord en évidence les principales difficultés de modernisation de Gestion des Ressources Humaines au sein des entreprises tunisiennes (managériales, structurelles, institutionnels et culturelles), puis l’apport de développement de l’employabilité pour la rénovation des pratiques de GRH et à l’accroissement de performances sociales et économiques à moyen et à long terme et, enfin, les conditions nécessaires à l’intégration d’une politique de développement de l’employabilité à la GRH. / As part of their efforts to modernize the Tunisian companies are looking for a model of effective management of their human resources with, beyond restructuring and flexibility necessary to ensure development of their performance and a career security of their employees. The central hypothesis we have determined as a response to this problem is: the renovation of Human Resource Management, for the establishment of a policy of development of employability, with Tunisian companies to advance their performance social and economic security and career paths for their employees.The results of this research are first identified the major challenges of modernizing human resources management in the Tunisian firms (managerial, structural, institutional and cultural) and the provision of employability development for renovation Human Resource Management practices and increasing social and economic performance in the medium and longer term and finally the conditions for the integration of a development policy employability of HRM.