The main objective of this work was to develop simple and sensitive electrochemical sensors for the detection of bisphenol A. To investigate the electrochemical behavior of BPA on a bare glassy carbon electrode. To apply the developed biosensor for the determination BPA by differential pulse voltammetry, electrochemical impedance spectrometry, square wave voltammetry and steady-state amperometry. To characterize the synthesized PDMA-PSS by cyclic voltammetry (CV), UV-Vis spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM).

The main objective of this work was to develop simple and sensitive electrochemical sensors for the detection of bisphenol A. To investigate the electrochemical behavior of BPA on a bare glassy carbon electrode. To apply the developed biosensor for the determination BPA by differential pulse voltammetry, electrochemical impedance spectrometry, square wave voltammetry and steady-state amperometry. To characterize the synthesized PDMA-PSS by cyclic voltammetry (CV), UV-Vis spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM).

The Guiana Shield is a sub-region of Amazonia, one of the richest areas on earth in terms of species number. It is also one of the most pristine areas and is still largely unexplored. Species number, distribution, boundaries and their evolutionary histories remain at least unclear but most of the time largely unknown. This is the case for most Anurans, a group which is recognized as threatened globally and is disappearing even from pristine tropical forests. Given the pace of forest destruction and the growing concerns about climate change it is urgently necessary to obtain a better estimate of regional biodiversity in Amazonian frogs as well as a better understanding of the origin and distribution of Anuran diversity. Furthermore, given their sensitivity to climatic conditions, amphibians are a good model to investigate the influence of paleoclimatic events on Neotropical diversification which was supposedly the driving force on biotic evolution during Pleistocene in the Guiana Shield. I first test species boundaries in two species Scinax ruber and Rhinella margaritifera. These species are widely distributed, abundant and largely recognized as species complexes. I used an original species delineation method based on the combined use of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA in phylogenetic and phylogeographic analyses. Phylogenetic analyses demonstrated the polyphyly of Scinax ruber and Rhinella margaritifera. These species consist of multiple lineages that may all merit species status. Conflicting signals of mitochondrial and nuclear markers indicated the possibility of ongoing hybridization processes. Phylogeographic analyses added further information in support of the specific status of these lineages. Our results highlight the utility of combining phylogenetic and phylogeographic methods, as well as the use of both mitochondrial and nuclear markers within one study. This approach helped to better understand the evolutionary history of taxonomically complex groups of species. The assessment of the geographic distribution of genetic diversity in tropical amphibian communities can lead to conclusions that differ strongly from prior analyses based on the occurrence of currently recognized species alone. Such studies, therefore, hold the potential to contribute to a more objective assessment of amphibian conservation priorities in tropical areas. Subsequently, I tested if these first results on cryptic species are generalisable, questioning what would potentially be a minimum estimate of the number of cryptic frog species in Amazonia and the Guiana Shield, using mtDNA with multiple complementary approaches. I also combined isolation by distance, phylogenetic analyses, and comparison of molecular distances to evaluate threshold values for the identification of candidate species among these frogs. In most cases, geographically distant populations belong to genetically highly distinct lineages that could be considered as candidate new species. This was not universal among the taxa studied and thus widespread species of Neotropical frogs really do exist, contra to previous assumptions. Moreover, the many instances of paraphyly and the wide overlap between distributions of inter- and intra-specific distances reinforce the hypothesis that many cryptic species remain to be described. In our data set, pairwise genetic distances below 0.02 are strongly correlated with geographical distances. This correlation remains statistically significant until genetic distance is 0.05, with no such relation thereafter. This suggests that for higher genetic distances allopatric and sympatric cryptic species prevail. Based on our analyses, we propose a more inclusive pairwise genetic distance of 0.03 between taxa to target lineages that could correspond to candidate species. Using this approach, we identify 129 candidate species, two-fold greater than the 60 species included in the current study. This leads to estimates of around 170 to 460 frog taxa unrecognized in Amazonia-Guianas. As a consequence the global amphibian decline detected especially in the Neotropics may be worse than realised. The Rhinella margaritifera complex is characterisized by the presence of many cryptic species throughout its wide distribution, ranging from Panama to Bolivia and almost entire Amazonia. French Guiana has long been thought to harbor two species of this group, though molecular data analysed in previous chapters indicated as many as five lineages. I tested whether morphological measurements are correlated or not with genetic data using discriminant analysis and if diagnostic characteristics among the previously determined lineages can be used to describe these new species. This is a novel integrative method which can lead to a facilitation of the description of cryptic species that have been detected by phylogenetic and/or phylogeographic studies. These analyses, combined with published data of other Rhinella species, indicated that two of these lineages represent previously unnamed species. Two of the remaining are allocable to R. margaritifera while the status of the fifth is still unclear because so far it is morphologically indistinguishable from R. castaneotica. Determining if codistributed species responded to climate change in an independent or concerted manner is a basic objective of comparative phylogeography. Species boundaries, histories, ecologies and their geographical ranges are still to be explored in the Guiana Shield. According to the refugia hypothesis this region was supposed to host a forest refugium during climatic oscillations of the Pleistocene but the causes and timing for this have been criticized. We investigated patterns of genetic structure within 18 frog species in the eastern Guiana Shield to explore species boundaries and their evolutionary history. We used mtDNA and nuclear DNA and complementary methods to compare the genetic diversity spatially and temporally. With one exception all the species studied diversified repeatedly within the eastern Guiana Shield during the last 4 million years. Instead of one Pleistocene forest refugium the Guiana Shield has probably hosted multiple refugia during late Pliocene and Pleistocene. Most of these Pleistocene refugia were probably situated on the coast of French Guiana, Amapà, Suriname and Guyana. This diversification likely resulted from forest fragmentation. Many species deserve taxonomic revisions and their ranges to be reconsidered. The local endemism of the Anuran fauna of the Guiana Shield is likely to be much higher and some areas consequently deserve more conservation efforts. Specifically I questioned whether major intraspecific diversification started before the Pleistocene and occurred within the Guiana Shield or ex situ. According to ecological characteristics of the species involved I will test different diversification hypotheses. The consequences on the diversity and the endemism of the Guiana Shield will be explored. My results demonstrate that we have been grossly underestimating local biological diversity in the Guiana Shield but also in Amazonia in general. The order of magnitude for potential species richness means that the eastern Guiana Shield hosts one of the richest frog fauna on earth. In most of the species studied high levels of mtDNA differentiation between populations call for a reassessment of the taxonomic status of what is being recognised as single species. Most species display deep divergence between eastern Guiana Shield populations and Amazonian ones. This emphasizes that the local endemism in the Guiana Shield of these zones is higher than previously recognized and must be prioritised elements taken into account in conservation planning. Nevertheless, a few other species appear widely distributed showing that widespread species do exist. This underlines the fact that some species have efficient dispersal abilities and that the frog fauna of the eastern Guiana Shield is a mixture of old Guianan endemic lineages that diversified in situ mostly during late Pliocene and Pleistocene and more recently exchanged lineages with the rest of Amazonia. Recognizing this strong historical component is necessary and timely for local conservation as these zones are likely to be irremediably modified in the near future.

The Guiana Shield is a sub-region of Amazonia, one of the richest areas on earth in terms of species number. It is also one of the most pristine areas and is still largely unexplored. Species number, distribution, boundaries and their evolutionary histories remain at least unclear but most of the time largely unknown. This is the case for most Anurans, a group which is recognized as threatened globally and is disappearing even from pristine tropical forests. Given the pace of forest destruction and the growing concerns about climate change it is urgently necessary to obtain a better estimate of regional biodiversity in Amazonian frogs as well as a better understanding of the origin and distribution of Anuran diversity. Furthermore, given their sensitivity to climatic conditions, amphibians are a good model to investigate the influence of paleoclimatic events on Neotropical diversification which was supposedly the driving force on biotic evolution during Pleistocene in the Guiana Shield. I first test species boundaries in two species Scinax ruber and Rhinella margaritifera. These species are widely distributed, abundant and largely recognized as species complexes. I used an original species delineation method based on the combined use of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA in phylogenetic and phylogeographic analyses. Phylogenetic analyses demonstrated the polyphyly of Scinax ruber and Rhinella margaritifera. These species consist of multiple lineages that may all merit species status. Conflicting signals of mitochondrial and nuclear markers indicated the possibility of ongoing hybridization processes. Phylogeographic analyses added further information in support of the specific status of these lineages. Our results highlight the utility of combining phylogenetic and phylogeographic methods, as well as the use of both mitochondrial and nuclear markers within one study. This approach helped to better understand the evolutionary history of taxonomically complex groups of species. The assessment of the geographic distribution of genetic diversity in tropical amphibian communities can lead to conclusions that differ strongly from prior analyses based on the occurrence of currently recognized species alone. Such studies, therefore, hold the potential to contribute to a more objective assessment of amphibian conservation priorities in tropical areas. Subsequently, I tested if these first results on cryptic species are generalisable, questioning what would potentially be a minimum estimate of the number of cryptic frog species in Amazonia and the Guiana Shield, using mtDNA with multiple complementary approaches. I also combined isolation by distance, phylogenetic analyses, and comparison of molecular distances to evaluate threshold values for the identification of candidate species among these frogs. In most cases, geographically distant populations belong to genetically highly distinct lineages that could be considered as candidate new species. This was not universal among the taxa studied and thus widespread species of Neotropical frogs really do exist, contra to previous assumptions. Moreover, the many instances of paraphyly and the wide overlap between distributions of inter- and intra-specific distances reinforce the hypothesis that many cryptic species remain to be described. In our data set, pairwise genetic distances below 0.02 are strongly correlated with geographical distances. This correlation remains statistically significant until genetic distance is 0.05, with no such relation thereafter. This suggests that for higher genetic distances allopatric and sympatric cryptic species prevail. Based on our analyses, we propose a more inclusive pairwise genetic distance of 0.03 between taxa to target lineages that could correspond to candidate species. Using this approach, we identify 129 candidate species, two-fold greater than the 60 species included in the current study. This leads to estimates of around 170 to 460 frog taxa unrecognized in Amazonia-Guianas. As a consequence the global amphibian decline detected especially in the Neotropics may be worse than realised. The Rhinella margaritifera complex is characterisized by the presence of many cryptic species throughout its wide distribution, ranging from Panama to Bolivia and almost entire Amazonia. French Guiana has long been thought to harbor two species of this group, though molecular data analysed in previous chapters indicated as many as five lineages. I tested whether morphological measurements are correlated or not with genetic data using discriminant analysis and if diagnostic characteristics among the previously determined lineages can be used to describe these new species. This is a novel integrative method which can lead to a facilitation of the description of cryptic species that have been detected by phylogenetic and/or phylogeographic studies. These analyses, combined with published data of other Rhinella species, indicated that two of these lineages represent previously unnamed species. Two of the remaining are allocable to R. margaritifera while the status of the fifth is still unclear because so far it is morphologically indistinguishable from R. castaneotica. Determining if codistributed species responded to climate change in an independent or concerted manner is a basic objective of comparative phylogeography. Species boundaries, histories, ecologies and their geographical ranges are still to be explored in the Guiana Shield. According to the refugia hypothesis this region was supposed to host a forest refugium during climatic oscillations of the Pleistocene but the causes and timing for this have been criticized. We investigated patterns of genetic structure within 18 frog species in the eastern Guiana Shield to explore species boundaries and their evolutionary history. We used mtDNA and nuclear DNA and complementary methods to compare the genetic diversity spatially and temporally. With one exception all the species studied diversified repeatedly within the eastern Guiana Shield during the last 4 million years. Instead of one Pleistocene forest refugium the Guiana Shield has probably hosted multiple refugia during late Pliocene and Pleistocene. Most of these Pleistocene refugia were probably situated on the coast of French Guiana, Amapà, Suriname and Guyana. This diversification likely resulted from forest fragmentation. Many species deserve taxonomic revisions and their ranges to be reconsidered. The local endemism of the Anuran fauna of the Guiana Shield is likely to be much higher and some areas consequently deserve more conservation efforts. Specifically I questioned whether major intraspecific diversification started before the Pleistocene and occurred within the Guiana Shield or ex situ. According to ecological characteristics of the species involved I will test different diversification hypotheses. The consequences on the diversity and the endemism of the Guiana Shield will be explored. My results demonstrate that we have been grossly underestimating local biological diversity in the Guiana Shield but also in Amazonia in general. The order of magnitude for potential species richness means that the eastern Guiana Shield hosts one of the richest frog fauna on earth. In most of the species studied high levels of mtDNA differentiation between populations call for a reassessment of the taxonomic status of what is being recognised as single species. Most species display deep divergence between eastern Guiana Shield populations and Amazonian ones. This emphasizes that the local endemism in the Guiana Shield of these zones is higher than previously recognized and must be prioritised elements taken into account in conservation planning. Nevertheless, a few other species appear widely distributed showing that widespread species do exist. This underlines the fact that some species have efficient dispersal abilities and that the frog fauna of the eastern Guiana Shield is a mixture of old Guianan endemic lineages that diversified in situ mostly during late Pliocene and Pleistocene and more recently exchanged lineages with the rest of Amazonia. Recognizing this strong historical component is necessary and timely for local conservation as these zones are likely to be irremediably modified in the near future.

Magister Scientiae - MSc / The main objective of this work was to develop simple and sensitive electrochemical sensors for the detection of bisphenol A. To investigate the electrochemical behavior of BPA on a bare glassy carbon electrode. To apply the developed biosensor for the determination BPA by differential pulse voltammetry, electrochemical impedance spectrometry, square wave voltammetry and steady-state amperometry. To characterize the synthesized PDMA-PSS by cyclic voltammetry (CV), UV-Vis spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM). / South Africa

Neste trabalho, apresentamos a eletrossíntese de um novo polímero condutor derivado do polipirrol (PPI) funcionalizado com um grupo carboxílico, o polipirrol-2-ácido carboxílico (PPI-2-COOH), e o seu uso como transdutor amperométrico em biossensores pelo uso da polifenol oxidase (PFO). São apresentadas todas as etapas de síntese e de caracterização dos filmes poliméricos em microeletrodos e o preparo e a resposta dos biossensores montados para a detecção de um composto fenólico. Nossos estudos sobre eletrossíntese, respostas eletroquímicas dos filmes, juntamente com resultados de microgravimetria e modelagem molecular de dímeros e trímeros derivados de PI-2-COOH, permitiram com que pudéssemos sugerir pela primeira vez um mecanismo de eletropolimerização deste monômero em meio não aquoso. Na caracterização dos filmes por espectroscopia in situ no UV-visível e infravermelho próximo foram observadas duas bandas idênticas às transições pi-pi* características dos filmes de PPI no seu estado neutro e de maior dopagem, confirmando a possibilidade de haver duas conformações na cadeia do PPI-2-COOH. Com a modelagem molecular de um oligômero formado a partir da oxidação do PI-2-COOH, verificamos que para cada 4 anéis heterocíclicos acoplados entre si na posição 4-5, um par de anéis se encontrava em um plano diferente do segundo par de anéis, mantendo este padrão em toda a extensão da cadeia polimérica. A resposta redox dos filmes nos permitiu observar a preferência do polímero pela entrada de cátions em sua estrutura. Nos espectros de FTIR também comprovamos a presença do grupo carboxílico na estrutura do polímero, o que permitiu uma imobilização enzimática por ligação covalente. A confecção de microeletrodos destinados para a análise por injeção em fluxo (FIA) nos possibilitou uma economia de reagentes, praticidade e boa reprodutibilidade das medidas. Os biossensores amperométricos obtidos pela imobilização covalente da PFO sobre filmes de PPI-2-COOH apresentaram um pH ótimo de funcionamento em 9,4 e um potencial ótimo de trabalho em +70 mV vs Ag/QRE. Finalizamos nosso trabalho obtendo as respostas amperométricas dos biossensores para a detecção de um composto fenólico, pirocatecol, com uma linearidade entre as concentrações de 5x10-4 até 2,5x10-2 mol/L. / In this work, we present the electrochemical synthesis of a new conducting polymer derived of polypyrrole (PPI) functionalized by carboxylic group, the polypyrrole-2-carboxylic acid, and its application as amperometric transducer in biosensor by use of polyphenol oxidase (PFO). All the steps of syntheses and characterization of the polymer film in microelectrodes and response of the biosensor build for detection of phenolic compost. Our study about electrosyntheses, electrochemical response of the films (PPI-2-COOH) together with microgravimetry result and the molecular modeling of dimer and trimer derived from PI-2-COOH allowed one to suggest, for the first time, the mechanism of electropolymerization of this monomer in non-aqueous medium. When the technique of in-situ ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy (UV-VIS in-situ) was observed two bands, identical to the transition pi-pi* which are characteristics of the PPI films on their neutral state and of bigger doping, confirming the possibility that there may be two conformations in the PPI-2-COOH chain. With the molecular modeling of an oligomer formed by PI-2-COOH oxidation, we verified that for each four heterocyclic ring coupled together in the position 4-5, there´s a pair of rings, maintaining this pattern in all the extension of the polymeric chain. The redox response through the electrochemical measurement we could observe in FTIR the polymer preference for the cations adsorption. On the FTIR measurements, we could also observe the presence of the carboxylic group in the polymers structure, which is needed for the enzymatic immobilization by covalent binding. The fabrication of the microelectrode destined to flow injection analysis (FIA), made possible not only to save a lot of reagents, but also demonstrated praticity in the experimental set up and good reproducibility of results. Hence, the obtaining of amperometric biosensor by covalent binding of PFO on the PPI-2-COOH film, presented good pH in 9.4 and great work potential in +70 mV vs Ag/AgCl. We finish the work with the amperometric response of the biosensor in the detection of pyrocatechol, forming a straight line between the concentrations of 5x10-4 to 2.5x10-2 mol/L.

Les polyphénols sont des bioproduits générés par le métabolisme des végétaux. Récemment, ils ont attiré l’attention par leur impact potentiellement positif sur la santé, en grande partie lié à leur capacité antioxydante. Ils interviennent également dans les arômes de vin, café, thé… et intéressent donc l’industrie agroalimentaire. Le développement de biocapteurs adaptés à ces molécules est donc nécessaire, tout en respectant certains critères (simplicité d’utilisation, rapidité de la mesure, faible coût). Dans le cas des biocapteurs enzymatiques, l’étape déterminante est l'immobilisation de l’enzyme sur la surface du transducteur sans affecter ses performances.Dans cette thèse nous avons utilisé des matériaux de type « hydroxyde double lamellaires » (HDLs) comme matrice d’immobilisation de la tyrosinase, enzyme reconnaissant spécifiquement les polyphénols, afin de fonctionnaliser la surface d’électrodes d’or sérigraphiées. L’objectif était d’élaborer des microbiocapteurs pour détecter les polyphénols extraits du thé vert.Les HDLs ont été synthétisés par la méthode de coprécipitation directe, puis caractérisés par différentes méthodes physiques (spectroscopies Raman et infrarouge, diffraction des RX) afin de confirmer leur composition et de définir leur structure cristalline. Puis, des films minces bidimensionnels de HDL de différentes compositions ont été réalisés en faisant varier différents paramètres comme la nature du substrat, la concentration de la solution initiale de HDL et la méthode de dépôt (auto-assemblage « SAM » ou spin coating). L’étude morphologique de ces films a été réalisée par microscopie de force atomique (AFM) afin d’optimiser l’état de surface avant l’immobilisation de la tyrosinase. Le greffage de cette dernière a également été étudié par AFM. Enfin, une étude électrochimique (par voltammétrie cyclique et chronoampérométrie) nous a permis de déterminer les caractéristiques analytiques des microbiocapteurs ampérométriques ainsi élaborés. Les résultats ont montré que nos systèmes présentent une grande sensibilité aux polyphénols et sont capables de détecter ces molécules grâce à leur oxydation et aussi à la réduction des composés enzymatiquement générés par la réaction catalytique. Ils sont dynamiques dans une large gamme linéaire de détection (jusqu'à 1000 ng.mL-1) et peuvent également détecter des traces de polyphénols (de m’ordre de quelques pg.mL-1). / Polyphenols are in abundance in diet, being present in various fruits or vegetables, but also in tea or wine. Their antioxidant properties attracted an increasing interest of different researchers in the field of medicine and food manufacturers. Consequently, very intensive studies have been conducted to develop efficient polyphenols biosensors, while respecting certain criteria (simplicity of use, speed of measurement, low cost). In the case of enzymatic biosensors, the decisive step is the immobilization of the enzyme on the transducer surface without affecting its performances.In this thesis, we used layered double hydroxides (LDHs) as a host matrix to immobilize tyrosinase, an enzyme recognizing specifically polyphenols, at the surface of screen printed gold electrodes. Polyphenols used to study the biosensors were extracted from green tea.LDHs nanosheets were prepared by the co-precipitation method. In a first step, their structural properties were characterized by X-ray powder diffraction, Raman and Infra-Red spectroscopies, confirming crystalline phase and chemical composition of LDHs. In a second step, LDHs-thin films were prepared by self-assembly and spin coating deposition under various experimental conditions (nature and concentration of LDHs …), and studied by Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) to obtain information about the surface morphology of the host matrix before enzyme immobilization. The presence of tyrosinase after the immobilization step was also confirmed by AFM. Electrochemical characteristics of the amperometric biosensors, whose design is based on this study, were determined by cyclic voltammetry and chronoamperometry. This study showed that these systems are highly sensitive to polyphenols, detecting them by their oxidation but also by the reduction of compounds enzymatically generated. They exhibit also other very attractive characteristics for the detection of complex mixture of polyphenols: a large dynamic range (up to 1000 ng.mL-1)and a very low detection limit (few pg.mL-1).

La dépigmentation volontaire est une pratique bien connue en Afrique sub-saharienne. Elle se définit comme une pratique par laquelle une personne, de sa propre initiative, tente de diminuer la pigmentation mélanique physiologique de sa propre peau. Les utilisateurs appliquent sur le corps, généralement sans surveillance médicale, de manière soutenue et prolongée, des produits ou des mélanges chimiques composés d’actifs dépigmentants souvent d’une grande nocivité.<p>Cette pratique est documentée dans plusieurs pays d’Afrique sub-saharienne (Sénégal, Mali, Burkina Faso, Togo, Nigéria, ….), et sur d’autres continents. Face à l’absence de données chiffrées pour le Rwanda, nous avons réalisé une étude des pratiques de la dépigmentation volontaire dans la capitale du pays, Kigali. <p>Au Rwanda, certaines plantes étaient utilisées lors des grandes cérémonies comme le mariage, spécialement par les femmes et les jeunes filles, pour éclaircir la peau. Une peau claire semble en fait un critère de beauté dans certaines traditions africaines. Nous avons donc réalisé une enquête ethnobotanique auprès de 61 tradipraticiens rwandais, afin de connaître les plantes qui, avant l’arrivée de la cosmétique moderne, étaient utilisées pour « embellir » (éclaircir) la peau, afin de vérifier si ces plantes pourraient interférer avec la production de la mélanine. <p>Notre enquête nous a permis de documenter 28 espèces, dont cinq [Brillantaisia cicatricosa LINDAU; Chenopodium ugandae (Aellen) Aellen ;Dolichopentas longiflora Oliv. Protea madiensis Oliv. subsp. Madiensis et Sesamum angolense Welw.] se sont distinguées par leur pourcentage de citation par les tradipraticiens. Ces dernières ont fait objet de notre étude de laboratoire. <p>Des extraits de polarité croissante, préparés à partir de ces cinq plantes, ont été testés pour leur modulation de la mélanogénèse et de la tyrosinase (enzyme clé de la mélanogenèse) sur une série de modèles: (i) sur la tyrosinase humaine dans les extraits totaux de mélanocytes normaux; (ii) sur des mélanocytes malins en culture (pour évaluer l’effet global des extraits de plante sur la mélanogenèse); (iii) sur la tyrosinase de champignon en solution et sur chromatoplaque de silice; et enfin (iv) sur l’activité tyrosine hydroxylase de l'enzyme. <p>Deux extraits à l’acétate d’éthyle de Protea madiensis Oliv. et de Sesamum angolense Welw. ont été sélectionnés pour leur activité, respectivement inhibitrice et activatrice de la tyrosinase de champignon. Ces deux extraits ont été soumis à une série de fractionnements dans le but d’isoler et d’identifier des composés actifs. Trois composés ont été isolés de Protea madiensis (2-tridécanone, acide oléique et β-sitostérol). La 2-tridécanone et l’acide oléique ont montré une inhibition de la tyrosinase de champignon sur chromatoplaque et de la tyrosinase humaine dans les extraits cellulaires. De plus, la 2-tridécanone a montré une inhibition de l’activité tyrosine hydroxylase. Le β-sitostérol n’a pas montré d’effet sur nos modèles mais il a déjà été isolé dans d’autres études en tant qu'inhibiteur de la tyrosinase. De l’extrait à l’acétate d’éthyle de Sesamum angolense Welw. nous avons isolé l’acide ursolique qui a montré une augmentation de l’activité de la tyrosinase de champignon sur chromatoplaque.<p>L’enquête ethnobotanique nous a permis de constater que la flore rwandaise regorge de plantes aux vertus cosmétiques intéressantes; celles-ci pourraient représenter une alternative aux actifs dépigmentants connus pour leurs nombreux effets secondaires mais néanmoins largement disponibles sur le marché rwandais. <p>L’enquête réalisée dans la ville de Kigali, nous a permis de constater que 27 % de notre population d’étude sont des utilisateurs conscients de produits dépigmentants. Ce pourcentage nous semble fort élevé et des mesures devraient être prises pour la sensibilisation et la conscientisation de la population quant aux risques encourus et à l’existence de médecines traditionnelles à visée dépigmentante. Ces mesures devraient être combinées avec la recherche de composés naturels dans l'espoir d'identifier des molécules actives et faiblement toxiques, voire atoxiques. <p>L’étude de la modulation de la pigmentation par les extraits des cinq plantes sélectionnées, nous a permis de confirmer l’information reçue des tradipraticiens. Cette étude nous a également montré que ces extraits de plantes renferment des activateurs de la mélanogenèse, qui pourraient être exploités pour le bronzage recherché par les sujets de peau claire.<p>L’isolement et identification de molécules à partir des extraits de deux plantes, nous a permis de constater que notre méthode de bioguidage fonctionne correctement; des mesures de déréplications devraient cependant être prises pour éviter autant que possible de retomber sur des molécules déjà connues./<p><p><p>Voluntary depigmentation, well-known in sub-Saharan Africa, is defined as a practice by which a person, by his/her own initiative, attempts to reduce his/her skin physiological melanin pigmentation. Users apply on the body, usually without medical supervision, in a sustained and prolonged manner, depigmenting compounds, single or in mixtures.<p>This quite harmful practice is documented in several sub-Saharan African countries (Senegal, Mali, Togo, Nigeria…) and in other continents. The absence of Rwandese data prompted us to conduct a study of the practices of voluntary depigmentation in the capital, Kigali.<p>In Rwanda, some plants were used during important ceremonies like wedding (marriage) especially by women and girls to lighten their skin. Fair skin is actually considered as a beauty criterion in some African traditions.<p>We conducted an ethnobotanical survey of 61 Rwandan traditional healers to identify the plants that were used before the introduction of modern cosmetics to "beautify" (lighten) the skin in order to check wether these plants could interfere with the production of melanin.<p>Our survey allowed us to identify and collect 28 species, of which 5 were selected (retained) for their higher percentage of citation by traditional healers [Brillantaisia cicatricosa LINDAU; Chenopodium ugandae (Aellen) Aellen ;Dolichopentas longiflora Oliv. Protea madiensis Oliv. subsp. madiensis and Sesamum angolense Welw.]. These five species have been used for our laboratory study.<p><p>Extracts of increasing polarities were prepared from the five plants and tested for their ability to modulate melanogenesis and tyrosinase (the key enzyme of melanogenesis) in a series of models: (i) human tyrosinase in total extracts from normal melanocytes; (ii) malignant melanocytes in culture (in order to assess the global effect of plant extracts on melanogenesis); (iii) mushroom tyrosinase in solution and on TLC plate; and finally (iv) tyrosine hydroxylase activity of the enzyme.<p>Two ethyl acetate extracts of Protea madiensis Oliv. and of Sesamum angolense Welw have been selected according to their respective inhibitory and activating effect on mushroom tyrosinase. These two extracts were fractionated to isolate and identify active compounds. Three compounds have been isolated from Protea madiensis (2-tridecanone, oleic acid and β-sitosterol). The 2-tridecanone and the oleic acid showed an inhibition of mushroom tyrosinase on TLC and human tyrosinase in cellular extracts. In addition, 2-tridecanone showed an inhibition of the tyrosine hydroxylase activity. β-sitostérol showed no effect on our models but has been identified, in other studies, as a tyrosinase inhibitor. From the ethyl acetate extract of Sesamum angolense, we isolated ursolic acid which increases the mushroom tyrosinase activity on TLC.<p>The ethnobotanical survey allowed us to (state) notice that Rwandan flora contains plants that have interesting cosmetic properties and could be an alternative to the use of harmful depigmenting products which are sold on Rwandese markets.<p>The survey conducted in Kigali city indicates that 27 % of surveyed persons are conscious users of depigmenting products. This percentage seems very high so that measures should be taken to raise awareness about the involved risks and of the existence of traditional medicines with such depigmenting effects. These measures should be accompanied (combined) with the search for natural compounds with depigmenting effect in the hope to identify actives that would be weakly or even non toxic at all.<p>The study of the pigmentation modulation by five selected plant extracts allowed to confirm the information obtained from traditional healers. It also indicates that, apart from an inhibitory effect, some of our plant extracts also contain melanogenesis activators that could be further exploited for tanning, an aspiration of fair-skinned individuals.<p>The isolation and identification of molecules from two plants extracts led us to conclude that our “bioguidance” method performs adequately. Nevertheless, some dereplication measures should be implemented to avoid spending time on isolating already known molecules. <p><p> <p> / Doctorat en Sciences biomédicales et pharmaceutiques / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Miesmuscheln inspirieren zur nächsten Generation von wasserbasierten Nassklebstoffen. Muschelfußproteine (mfps) ermöglichen es den Muscheln, sich an jede Oberfläche zu haften und zeigen bemerkenswerte Eigenschaften, die insbesondere durch das Aminosäurederivat 3,4 Dihydroxyphenylalanin (Dopa) verursacht werden. Da der Einfluss von Wasser nach wie vor eine große Herausforderung für Klebeanwendungen darstellt und die Herstellung und Reinigung von Klebeproteinen viel Zeit und Kosten erfordert, ist ein einfacher Zugang zu biomimetischen Klebstoffen von großem Interesse. Die vorliegende Arbeit untersucht einen neuartigen Muschel-inspirierten Polymerisationsansatz zur Herstellung von adhäsiven Proteinanaloga aus Oligopeptiden (Unimeren). Der Polymerisationsmechanismus nutzt einen Reaktionsweg, der in Miesmuscheln auftritt und beruht auf einer enzymatischen Oxidation von Tyrosin zu Dopachinon, das mit freien Thiolen aus Cystein Cysteinyldopa bildet, wodurch Unimere verknüpft und adhäsive Funktionalitäten erzeugt werden. Innerhalb weniger Minuten entstehen hochmolekulare Polymere, die ein vielseitiges Adsorptions- und starkes Adhäsionsverhalten demonstrieren. Die Proteinanaloga weisen eine signifikante Multischicht-Adsorption auf hydrophilen sowie hydrophoben Oberflächen auf und sind resistent gegenüber Spülschritten mit hochkonzentrierten Salz-Lösungen. Die beobachteten Adhäsionsenergien liegen im Bereich von kommerziellen mfp-Extrakten und überschreiten sogar berichtete Werte für isolierte mfps. Die Arbeit präsentiert eine einfache Synthese künstlicher mfp-Analoga, die in der Lage sind Aspekte natürlicher mfps nachzuahmen und potenziell zur Entwicklung von wasserresistenten Universalklebstoffen beitragen. Um die Bedingungen für eine kostengünstige, großtechnische Produktion zu verbessern, werden zusätzlich alternative Synthesewege für die enzymfreie Herstellung Muschel-inspirierter Polymere untersucht, die auf der chemischen Oxidation von Dopa-haltigen Unimeren beruhen. / Marine mussels provide inspiration for the next generation of water-based, wet adhesives. Mussel foot proteins (mfps) enable them to attach to any surface and exhibit remarkable properties, notably due to the amino acid derivative 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (Dopa). Since the influence of water still constitutes a major challenge for gluing applications and large-scale production and purification of adhesive proteins is time-consuming and costly, an easy access route toward biomimetic adhesives is of high interest. This thesis investigates a novel mussel-inspired polymerization approach for the production of adhesive protein analogues from oligopeptides (unimers). The polymerization mechanism exploits a distinct reaction pathway, occurring in mussels and relies on enzyme-mediated oxidation of tyrosine to Dopaquinone in the unimers, which forms cysteinyldopa with free thiols from cysteine, thereby linking unimers and generating adhesive moieties. Within a few minutes high molecular weight polymers are obtained that show versatile adsorption and strong adhesion behaviour. The protein analogues exhibit significant multilayer adsorption onto hydrophilic as well as hydrophobic surfaces and resist rinsing with highly saline solutions. Comparative adhesion studies on silica reveal adhesion energies that are in the same range as commercial mussel foot protein extracts and even exceed reported values for isolated foot proteins that constitute the gluing interfaces. The approach offers facile access toward artificial mussel foot proteins that are capable of mimicking aspects of the natural ideal and potentially helps to develop next-generation universal water resistant glues. In order to further improve the conditions regarding cost-efficient and large-scale production in the future, alternative synthesis routes for the enzyme-free generation of mussel-inspired polymers based on chemical oxidation of Dopa containing unimers are additionally explored.

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