No description available.

Visual processing is the earliest core process required to support a normal reading system. However, little attention has been given to its role in any of the existing cognitive/computational models of reading. The ultimate goal of this thesis is to create a large-scale model of reading, which can generate phonology and semantics from print. Building such a model will allow for the exploration of a number of theoretically important cognitive phenomena in both normal and impaired reading including: font and size invariance; letter confusability; length effects; and pure alexic reading patterns. To achieve this goal, there are a number of important sub-goals that need to be achieved: (1) to develop a visual processing component which is capable of recognising letters in different fonts and sizes; (2) to produce a model that can develop useful intermediate (orthographic) representations as a consequence of learning; (3) to develop a set of semantic representations compact enough to allow efficient learning but that can still capture realistic semantic similarity relationships; (4) to integrate all the components together into a large-scale recurrent reading model; and (5) to extend the model to support picture naming, and to explore whether damage to the visual system can produce symptoms similar to those found in PA patients. Chapter 2 started by developing a simple feedforward network for letter recognition. The model was trained with letters in various transformations, which allowed the model to learn to deal with size and shape invariance problems as well as accounting for letter confusability effects and generalising to previously unseen letters. The model achieved this by extracting key features from visual input which could be used to support accurate letter recognition. Chapter 3 incorporated the letter recognition component developed in Chapter 2 into a word reading model. The reading model was trained on the mappings between print and phonology, with the orthographic representations which learn to emerge over training. The model could support accurate nonword naming and simulated the length by lexicality interaction observed in normal reading. A system of semantic representations was developed in Chapter 4 by using co-occurrence statistics to generate semantic codes that preserved realistic similarity relationships. Chapter 5 integrated all the components developed in the previous chapters together into a large-scale recurrent reading model. Finally, Chapter 6 extended the reading model to perform object recognition along with the reading task. When the model's visual system was damaged it was able to simulate the abnormal length effect typically seen in PA patients. The damaged model also showed impaired reaction times in object naming and preserved sensitivity to lexical/semantic variables in reading. The picture naming performance was modulated by visual complexity. In summary, the results highlight the importance of incorporating visual information into computational models of single word reading, and suggest that doing so will enable the exploration of a wide range of effects that were previously inaccessible to these types of connectionist models.

Although many researchers investigate the senses separately, most people have a coherent conscious experience of the world that is not divided into separate perceptions of vision, hearing, or other senses. The brain integrates the information received from our senses into a unified representation of the world around us. Previous research has demonstrated that what people perceive with one sense can influence their perception of stimuli with the other senses (Roffler & Butler, 1968; Marks, 2000). The current set of studies was designed to illuminate the associations between musical pitch and visuospatial motion. The first two experiments with infants revealed that 11-month-old infants are sensitive to associations between ascending and descending musical pitch and the direction of an object’s motion. Additionally, two more experiments with infants revealed that infants of the same age do not show the associations of rightward motion with ascending pitch and leftward motion with descending pitch that adults have demonstrated in some experiments (Eitan & Granot, 2006). The fifth experiment tested the influence of ascending and descending musical stimuli on making a visuospatial motion to a target location. Adult subjects demonstrated faster reaction times when using a trackball to move a cursor to a target location on a computer screen when the direction of the target was congruent with the musical stimulus to which they were listening. The effect was stronger for vertical target locations than for horizontal target locations. The results of these studies indicate that both infants and adults are sensitive to associations between musical pitch and visuospatial motion in the vertical plane, and adults may also make associations between musical pitch and visuospatial motion in the horizontal plane. / text

Les variations d’efficacité du traitement visuel dans le temps ont été étudiées par échantillonnage temporel aléatoire. Vingt-quatre adultes ont identifié des stimuli composés de bruit blanc visuel et d’images d’objets familiers (expérience 1) ou de visages célèbres (expérience 2). Le ratio signal-bruit variait à travers le temps selon des fonctions d’échantillonnage générées par l’intégration d’ondes sinusoïdales de différentes fréquences (5 à 55 Hz) et de phases et amplitudes aléatoires. Des vecteurs de classification (VC) temporels ont été calculés en soustrayant la somme pondérée des ratios signal-bruit associés aux mauvaises réponses de celle associée aux bonnes réponses. Des images de classification (IC) temps-fréquence ont été obtenues en appliquant la même procédure aux résultats d’analyses temps-fréquence réalisées sur la fonction d’échantillonnage de chaque essai. Les VC temporels des deux expériences sont très variables entre les participants. Par contre, les IC temps-fréquence sont remarquablement similaires à travers les participants (cohérence inter-sujets de .93 et .57 pour l’expérience 1 et 2 respectivement). Des comparaisons par test t nous indiquent de nombreuses différences entre les IC temps-fréquence des objets et visages familiers, mais aussi des objets non familiers et des mots analysés dans des études précédentes. Ainsi, ces IC sont sensibles à la classe de stimuli présentés, mais aussi à la familiarité de ces derniers. Les résultats témoignent d’une variation rapide dans l’efficacité de l’encodage visuel durant les 200 premières millisecondes d’exposition au stimulus et suggèrent que les IC du domaine temps-fréquence reflètent un aspect hautement fondamental du traitement visuel, hypothétiquement rattaché aux oscillations cérébrales. / Variations in visual processing effectiveness through time were investigated using random temporal stimulus sampling. Twenty-four adults named photographs of either familiar objects (experiment 1) or famous faces (experiment 2). Stimuli were made by a linear combination of the target image and high density white visual noise. Signal-to-noise ratio varied throughout the 200 ms stimulus duration. A new temporal sampling function was generated on each trial by the integration of random amplitude and phase sinusoidal waves of frequency between 5 and 55 Hz (in 5 Hz steps). Temporal classification vectors (CV) were calculated by subtracting the weighted sum of the signal-to-noise ratio associated to errors from that associated to correct responses. Time-frequency classification images (CI) were obtained by applying the same procedure on the outcome of time-frequency analyses applied to the sampling functions of each trial. In both experiments, the temporal CVs were highly variable across participants, but the time-frequency CIs were remarkably similar across participants (inter-subject coherence of .93 and .57 for experiments 1 and 2 respectively). T-tests revealed multiple differences between the time-frequency CIs obtained with familiar objects and faces, but also with non-familiar objects and words analyzed in previous studies. Therefore, theses CIs are sensitive to stimulus type, but also to stimulus familiarity. The present results indicate rapid variations of visual encoding effectiveness in the initial 200 ms of stimulus exposure and suggests that the time-frequency CIs tap a highly fundamental aspect of visual processing, hypothetically linked to brain oscillations.

No description available.

Le fonctionnement visuel est sujet à des modification avec le vieillissement sain. Que ce soit l’identification, le traitement ou la perception d’un stimulus visuel, l’avancée en âge peut s’accompagner d’une altération de la vision. Afin d’investiguer les caractéristiques temporelles du traitement visuel dans le vieillissement sain, la présente étude utilise une tâche de reconnaissance d’images achromatiques d’objets communs à l’aide de la technique d’échantillonnage temporel aléatoire. Cette technique permet de révéler les mécanismes oscillatoires visuels en jeux dans la réalisation d’une tâche perceptive. 32 participants, divisés en deux groupes de 16, soit des jeunes adultes (18 - 35 ans) et des personnes âgées entre 60 et 85 ans ont pris part à l’étude. Les résultats qu’offrent la technique d’échantillonnage temporel sont appelés des images de classification (IC) et montrent la variation de l’efficacité du traitement visuel à travers le temps et dans le domaine temps-fréquence. Pour chacun des domaines, les IC sont également décomposées selon leurs spectres de puissance et de phase par une analyse de Fourier. Les résultats montrent des différences significatives entre les groupes pour les IC temporelles et temps-fréquence. De plus, autant dans le domaine temporel que temps-fréquence, ce sont les spectres de phase qui se distinguent significativement entre les deux groupes alors que les spectres de puissance des IC ne diffèrent pas. Il apparaît donc que les mécanismes oscillatoires en jeu pour la réalisation de la tâche de reconnaissance d’objets sont différents d’un groupe à l’autre. Spécifiquement, il s’agirait de la chronologie de leur engagement dans la tâche qui diffère. / Visual function is subject to some modifications with healthy aging. Whether it is the identification, processing, or perception of a visual stimulus, advancing age can be accompanied by an alteration of vision. To investigate the temporal characteristics of visual processing in healthy aging, the present study uses a recognition task of achromatic images of common object using the random temporal sampling technique. This technique reveals the visual oscillatory mechanisms at play in the realization of a perceptual task. 32 participants, divided into two groups of 16, young adults (18-35 years old) and elderly between 60 and 85 years old took part in this study. The results of the temporal sampling technique are called classification images (CI) and show the variation of visual processing efficiency across time and time-frequency domain. For each domain, CIs were also decomposed according to their power and phase spectra by Fourier analysis. The results show significant differences between groups for the time and time-frequency CIs. In addition, both in the time and time-frequency domains, it is the phase spectra that differ significantly between groups whereas the power spectra do not differ. It thus appears that the oscillatory mechanisms involved in carrying out object recognition are different from one group to another. Specifically, it is the timing of the engagement of these oscillatory mechanisms that differs between groups.

Abstract Audio-oral speech and visuo-manual sign language as used by the Deaf community are two very different realizations of the human linguistic communication system. Sign language is not only used by the hearing impaired but also by different groups of hearing individuals. To date, there is a great discrepancy in scientific knowledge about signed and spoken languages. Particularly little is known about the integration of the two systems, even though the vast majority of deaf and hearing signers also have a command of some form of speech. This neurolinguistic study aimed to achieve basic knowledge about semantic integration mechanisms across speech and sign language in hearing native and non-native signers. Basic principles of sign processing as reflected in electrocortical brain activation and behavioral decisions were examined in three groups of study participants: Hearing native signers (children of deaf adults, CODAs), hearing late learned signers (professional sign language interpreters), and hearing non-signing controls. Event-related brain potentials (ERPs) and behavioral response frequencies were recorded while the participants performed a semantic decision task for priming lexeme pairs. The lexeme pairs were presented either within speech (spoken prime-spoken target) or across speech and sign language (spoken prime-signed target). Target-related ERP responses were subjected to temporal principal component analyses (tPCA). The neurocognitive basis of semantic integration processes were assessed by analyzing different ERP components (N170, N400, late positive complex) in response to the antonymic and unrelated targets. Behavioral decision sensitivity to the target lexemes is discussed in relation to the measured brain activity. Behaviorally, all three groups of study participants performed above chance level when making semantic decisions about the primed targets. Different result patterns, however, hinted at three different processing strategies. As the target-locked electrophysiological data was analyzed by PCA, for the first time in the context of sign language processing, objectively allocated ERP components of interest could be explored. A little surprisingly, the overall study results from the sign-naïve control group showed that they performed in a more content-guided way than expected. This suggested that even non-experts in the field of sign language were equipped with basic skills to process the cross-linguistically primed signs. Behavioral and electrophysiological study results together further brought up qualitative differences in processing between the native and late learned signers, which raised the question: can a unitary model of sign processing do justice to different groups of sign language users? / Tiivistelmä Kuuloaistiin ja ääntöelimistön motoriikkaan perustuva puhe ja kuurojen yhteisön käyttämä, näköaistiin ja käsien liikkeisiin perustuva viittomakieli ovat kaksi varsin erilaista ihmisen kielellisen viestintäjärjestelmän toteutumismuotoa. Viittomakieltä käyttävät kuulovammaisten ohella myös monet kuulevat ihmisryhmät. Tähänastinen tutkimustiedon määrä viittomakielistä ja puhutuista kielistä eroaa huomattavasti. Erityisen vähän on tiedetty näiden kahden järjestelmän yhdistämisestä, vaikka valtaosa kuuroista ja kuulevista viittomakielen käyttäjistä hallitsee myös puheen jossain muodossa. Tämän neurolingvistisen tutkimuksen tarkoituksena oli hankkia perustietoja puheen ja viittomakielen välisistä semanttisista yhdistämismekanismeista kuulevilla, viittomakieltä äidinkielenään tai muuna kielenä käyttävillä henkilöillä. Viittomien prosessoinnin perusperiaatteita, jotka ilmenevät aivojen sähköisen toiminnan muutoksina ja valintapäätöksinä, tutkittiin kolmessa koehenkilöryhmässä: kuulevilla viittomakieltä äidinkielenään käyttävillä henkilöillä (kuurojen aikuisten kuulevilla ns. CODA-lapsilla, engl. children of deaf adults), kuulevilla viittomakielen myöhemmin oppineilla henkilöillä (viittomakielen ammattitulkeilla) sekä kuulevilla viittomakieltä osaamattomilla verrokkihenkilöillä. Tapahtumasidonnaiset herätepotentiaalit (ERP:t) ja käyttäytymisvasteen frekvenssit rekisteröitiin koehenkilöiden tehdessä semanttisia valintoja viritetyistä (engl. primed) lekseemipareista. Lekseemiparit esitettiin joko puheena (puhuttu viritesana – puhuttu kohdesana) tai puheen ja viittomakielen välillä (puhuttu viritesana – viitottu kohdesana). Kohdesidonnaisille ERP-vasteille tehtiin temporaaliset pääkomponenttianalyysit (tPCA). Semanttisten yhdistämisprosessien neurokognitiivista perustaa arvioitiin analysoimalla erilaisia ERP-komponentteja (N170, N400, myöhäinen positiivinen kompleksi) vastineina antonyymisiin ja toisiinsa liittymättömiin kohteisiin. Käyttäytymispäätöksen herkkyyttä kohdelekseemeille tarkastellaan suhteessa mitattuun aivojen aktiviteettiin. Käyttäytymisen osalta kaikki kolme koehenkilöryhmää suoriutuivat satunnaistasoa paremmin tehdessään semanttisia valintoja viritetyistä kohdelekseemeistä. Erilaiset tulosmallit viittaavat kuitenkin kolmeen erilaiseen prosessointistrategiaan. Kun kohdelukittua elektrofysiologista dataa analysoitiin pääkomponenttianalyysin avulla ensimmäistä kertaa viittomakielen prosessoinnin yhteydessä, voitiin tutkia tarkkaavaisuuden objektiivisesti allokoituja ERP-komponentteja. Oli jossain määrin yllättävää, että viittomakielellisesti natiivin verrokkiryhmän tulokset osoittivat sen jäsenten toimivan odotettua sisältölähtöisemmin. Tämä viittaa siihen, että viittomakieleen perehtymättömilläkin henkilöillä on perustaidot lingvistisesti ristiin viritettyjen viittomien prosessointiin. Yhdessä käyttäytymisperäiset ja elektrofysiologiset tutkimustulokset toivat esiin laadullisia eroja prosessoinnissa viittomakieltä äidinkielenään puhuvien henkilöiden ja kielen myöhemmin oppineiden henkilöiden välillä. Tämä puolestaan johtaa kysymykseen, voiko yksi viittomien prosessointimalli soveltua erilaisille viittomakielen käyttäjäryhmille?

Cette étude compare les variations d’efficacité du traitement visuel dans le temps entre 16 autistes adultes ayant un retard initial du langage et 16 participants contrôles présentant un développement typique, en utilisant la technique d’échantillonnage temporel aléatoire. Les participants devaient nommer des objets familiers (expérience 1) ou des mots écrits (expérience 2) présentés sur un écran d’ordinateur pendant 200 ms et dont la visibilité (i.e. ratio signal/bruit) variait aléatoirement à travers le temps. Pour chacun des 32 participants, des images de classification (IC) temps-fréquence ont été obtenues en soustrayant la moyenne des fonctions d’échantillonnage (i.e. les ratio signal/bruit) ou leur recodage en temps-fréquence associées aux réponses erronées de celle associée aux réponses correctes. Les résultats démontrent que l’efficacité du traitement visuel chez les deux groupes de participants est modulée à travers le temps et est affectée par le contenu fréquentiel des oscillations du rapport signal-sur-bruit. Des différences inter-groupes importantes sont toutefois observées quant à la chronologie des mécanismes oscillatoires sont mis en branle pour la réalisation de la tâche de reconnaissance d’objets. Pour la tâche de reconnaissance de mots écrits, les différences entre les groupes ne sont que marginalement significatives. Il est proposé que la plus grande sensibilité de la tâche de reconnaissance d’objets puisse s’expliquer par 3 chose essentielles : 1. la plus grande complexité des mécanismes auxquels elle doit faire appel pour atteindre une bonne réponse. 2. Le surfonctionnement perceptif des autistes dans le traitement des informations locales ou de bas niveau. 3. Une variabilité de la localisation des activations qui soulève la possibilité que l'autisme implique une amélioration et/ou une altération des mécanismes de plasticité typiques. / Variations in visual processing efficiency over time were compared between 16 adult autistic participants with initial language delay and 16 typically developing control participants, using the random temporal sampling technique. Participants were asked to name familiar objects (experiment 1) or written words (experiment 2) presented on a computer screen for 200 ms and whose visibility (i.e., signal-to-noise ratio) varied randomly across time. For each of these 32 participants, time-frequency classification images (CI) were obtained by subtracting the average of the sampling functions (i.e., signal-to-noise ratio) or time-frequency recordings thereof associated with incorrect responses from that associated with correct responses. The efficiency of visual processing in the two groups of participants is modulated through the time and is affected by the frequency content of signal-to-noise ratio oscillations. Significant inter-group differences were observed in the timing of the oscillatory mechanisms for the object recognition task. For the written word recognition task, the differences between groups are only marginally significant. It is proposed that three essential things can explain the greater sensitivity of the object recognition task: 1. the greater complexity of the mechanisms it must call up to reach correct answer. 2. The perceptual over-functioning of autistic people, more evident in the detection, the categorization and the memory of perceptual information. 3. An increased variability in the localization of activations that raises the possibility that autism involves enhancement and/or alteration of typical plasticity mechanisms.

There is a difference between the raw sensory input to the brain and our stable perception of entities in the environment. A first approach to investigate perception is to study relationships between properties of currently presented stimuli and biological correlates of perceptual processes. However, it is known that such processes are not only dependent on the current stimulus. Sampling of information and the concurrent neuronal processing of stimulus content rely on contextual relationships in the environment, and between the environment and the body. Perceptual processes dynamically adjust to relevant context, such as the current task of the organism and its immediate history. To understand perception, we have to study how processing of current stimulus content is influenced by such contextual factors. This thesis investigates the influence of such factors on visual processing. In particular, it investigates effects of temporal context in early visual processing and the effect of task context in eye movement control. To investigate effects of contextual factors on early visual processing of current stimulus content, we study neuronal processing of visual information in the primary visual cortex. We use real-time optical imaging with voltage sensitive dyes to capture neuronal population activity in the millisecond range across several millimeters of cortical area. To characterize the cortical layout concerning the mapping of orientation, previous to further investigations, we use smoothly moving grating stimuli. Investigating responses to this stimulus type systematically, we find independent encoding of local contrast and orientation, and a direct mapping of current stimulus content onto cortical activity (Study 1). To investigate the influence of the previous stimulus as context on processing of current stimulus content, we use abrupt visual changes in sequences of modified natural images. In earlier studies, investigating relatively fast timescales, it was found that the primary visual cortex continuously represents current input (ongoing encoding), with little interference from past stimuli. We investigate whether this coding scheme generalizes to cases in which stimuli change more slowly, as frequently encountered in natural visual input. We use sequences of natural scene contours, comprised of vertically and horizontally filtered natural images, their superpositions, and a blank stimulus, presented with 10 or 33 Hz. We show that at the low temporal frequency, cortical activity patterns do not encode the present orientations but instead reflect their relative changes in time. For example, when a stimulus with horizontal orientation is followed by the superposition of both orientations, the pattern of cortical activity represents the newly added vertical orientations instead of the full sum of orientations. Correspondingly, contour removal from the superposition leads to the representation of orientations that have disappeared rather than those that remain. This is in sharp contrast to more rapid sequences for which we find an ongoing representation of present input, consistent with earlier studies. In summary, we find that for slow stimulus sequences, populations of neurons in the primary visual cortex are no longer tuned to orientations within individual stimuli but instead represent the difference between consecutive stimuli. Our results emphasize the influence of the temporal context on early visual processing and consequentially on information transmission to higher cortical areas (Study 2). To study effects of contextual factors on the sampling of visual information, we focus on human eye movement control. The eyes are actively moved to sample visual information from the environment. Some traditional approaches predict eye movements solely on simple stimulus properties, such as local contrasts (stimulus-driven factors). Recent arguments, however, emphasize the influence of tasks (task context) and bodily factors (spatial bias). To investigate how contextual factors affect eye movement control, we quantify the relative influences of the task context, spatial biases and stimulus-driven factors. Participants view and classify natural scenery and faces while their eye movements are recorded. The stimuli are composed of small image patches. For each of these patches we derive a measure that quantifies stimulus-driven factors, based on the image content of a patch, and spatial viewing biases, based on the location of the patch. Utilizing the participants’ classification responses, we additionally derive a measure, which reflects the information content of a patch in the context of a given task. We show that the effect of spatial biases is highest, that task context is a close runner-up, and that stimulus-driven factors have, on average, a smaller influence. Remarkably, all three factors make independent and significant contributions to the selection of viewed locations. Hence, in addition to stimulus-driven factors and spatial biases, the task context contributes to visual sampling behavior and has to be considered in a model of human eye movements. Visual processing of current stimulus content, in particular visual sampling behavior and early processing, is inherently dependent on context. We show that already in the first cortical stage, temporal context strongly affects the processing of new visual information and that visual sampling by eye movements is significantly influenced by the task context, independently of spatial factors and stimulus-driven factors. The empirical results presented provide foundations for an improved theoretical understanding of the role of context in perceptual processes.

No description available.