Οι κυψέλες καυσίμου είναι ηλεκτροχημικές διατάξεις οι οποίες επιτρέπουν την απευθείας μετατροπή της ελεύθερης χημικής ενέργειας ενός καυσίμου σε ηλεκτρική. Η λειτουργία τους βασίζεται σε μία αντίδραση οξείδωσης ενός καυσίμου, η οποία λαμβάνει χώρα στην άνοδο, και σε μία αντίδραση αναγωγής ενός οξειδωτικού μέσου, η οποία λαμβάνει χώρα στην κάθοδο. Οι κυψέλες καυσίμου πολυμερικής μεμβράνης (ΡΕΜ) χρησιμοποιούν ηλεκτρολύτη αγωγιμότητας Η+, το θερμοκρασιακό εύρος λειτουργίας τους είναι 30-100oC και αποτελούν μία υποσχόμενη τεχνολογία, που βρίσκεται πολύ κοντά στο στάδιο της εμπορευματοποίησης. Το κυριότερο καύσιμο που χρησιμοποιείται στις κυψέλες καυσίμου είναι το Η2, το οποίο παράγεται συνήθως από διεργασίες αναμόρφωσης υδρογονανθράκων ή αλκοολών. Το μονοξείδιο του άνθρακα που παράγεται επίσης κατά την διαδικασία της αναμόρφωσης, αποτελεί ένα σημαντικό άλυτο πρόβλημα στις κυψέλες καυσίμου τύπου ΡΕΜ, καθώς η ρόφησή του στην άνοδο της κυψέλης, παρεμποδίζει τη ρόφηση του Η2. Στην παρούσα εργασία μελετάται η ηλεκτρόλυση του νερού με χρήση μεμβρανών πρωτονιακής αγωγιμότητας καθώς και η μελέτη της βελτίωσης της απόδοσης κελιών καυσίμου τύπου ΡΕΜ μέσω τριοδικής λειτουργίας υπό συνθήκες δηλητηριασμού με CO. Στο πρώτο κεφάλαιο της εργασίας γίνεται μια εισαγωγή στην τεχνολογία των κυψελών καυσίμου, την αρχή λειτουργίας τους και τις θερμοδυναμικές αρχές που την διέπουν. Στην συνέχεια περιγράφονται εκτενώς τα χαρακτηριστικά των κυψελών καυσίμου πολυμερικής μεμβράνης, τα state-of-the-art υλικά που χρησιμοποιούνται και το πρόβλημα της διαχείρισης του νερού. Το δεύτερο κεφάλαιο αποτελεί επίσης εισαγωγικό κεφάλαιο και αναφέρεται στη σημασία του υδρογόνου. Το υδρογόνο δεν αποτελεί μόνο ένα καύσιμο, είναι ένα καύσιμο το οποίο δύναται να αλλάξει άμεσα την σημερινή δομή της οικονομίας που βασίζεται στα ορυκτά καύσιμα (fossil fuels). Στο κεφάλαιο αυτό, αρχικά γίνεται μια ιστορική αναδρομή και στη συνέχεια αναλύονται οι μέθοδοι παραγωγής του και ο ρόλος του ως καύσιμο. Το τρίτο κεφάλαιο αφορά την ηλεκτρόλυση του νερού η οποία γίνεται με χρήση διατάξεων που χρησιμοποιούν ως ηλεκτρολύτη μια πολυμερική μεμβράνη πρωτονιακής αγωγιμότητας. Αρχικά, γίνεται μια θεωρητική εισαγωγή στη διαδικασία ηλεκτρόλυσης του νερού και στη συνέχεια μια αναφορά στις διατάξεις οι οποίες χρησιμοποιούνται για ηλεκτρόλυση. Ακολουθεί το πειραματικό μέρος, όπου περιγράφονται η παρασκευή της συστοιχίας ανόδου/ηλεκτρολύτη/καθόδου (ΜΕΑ), της πειραματικής διάταξης, της προετοιμασίας των καταλυτών καθώς και η παρουσίαση των πειραματικών αποτελεσμάτων. Κατά την ηλεκτρόλυση του νερού σε κελί καυσίμου τύπου PEM, παρατηρήθηκε 100% εκλεκτικότητα σε οξυγόνο, χρησιμοποιώντας ηλεκτρόδια IrO2 εναποτεθημένα με τη μέθοδο του sputtering σε υπόστρωμα Ti/C. Βρέθηκε ότι το ποσοστό του Nafion επηρεάζει τόσο το ρυθμό παραγωγής οξυγόνου όσο και την εκλεκτικότητα και προστατεύει τις θέσεις C-IrO2 για παραγωγή CO2 και οδηγεί σε 100% εκλεκτικότητα προς οξυγόνο. Στο τέταρτο κεφάλαιο μελετάται η τριοδική λειτουργία των κυψελών καυσίμου υπό συνθήκες δηλητηριασμού της ανόδου με CO. Ένα από τα σημαντικότερα προβλήματα της χρήσης των κελιών καυσίμου είναι ο δηλητηριασμός του ανοδικού ηλεκτροδίου πλατίνας από CO. Αυτό συμβαίνει διότι κατά την αναμόρφωση των ασθενών υδρογονανθράκων ή υγρών αλκοολών σε υδρογόνο, ταυτόχρονα παράγονται σημαντικά επίπεδα μονοξειδίου του άνθρακα τα οποία δηλητηριάζουν την άνοδο και οδηγούν σε υποβάθμιση της απόδοσης του κελιού. Ο σκοπός της μελέτης αυτής είναι να ερευνηθεί μια εναλλακτική προσέγγιση για την ενίσχυση της απόδοσης των PEMFCs υπό συνθήκες δηλητηριασμού με CO, χρησιμοποιώντας την πρόσφατη περιγραφή του σχεδιασμού και της λειτουργίας των τριοδικών κελιών καυσίμου. Αρχικά στο τέταρτο κεφάλαιο, γίνεται περιγραφή της αρχής λειτουργίας της τριοδικής διάταξης, της προετοιμασίας των ηλεκτροδίων καθώς και της παρασκευής της ΜΕΑ. Επίσης περιγράφεται η ακριβής γεωμετρία της διάταξης του τριοδικού PEMFC με τα ηλεκτρικά κυκλώματα και η ακριβής γεωμετρία της συστοιχίας των τριοδικών PEMFCs. Στη συνέχεια περιγράφεται αναλυτικά η πειραματική διαδικασία που ακολουθήθηκε για τη λήψη των πειραματικών δεδομένων και ακολουθούν τα πειραματικά αποτελέσματα. Πρώτα παρουσιάζονται τα πειραματικά αποτελέσματα για τη συμβατική λειτουργία με τροφοδοσία Η2. Ακολουθούν τα αποτελέσματα για τη συμβατική λειτουργία του κελιού υπό δηλητηριασμό με CO και τέλος, παρουσιάζονται τα πειραματικά αποτελέσματα της τριοδικής λειτουργίας. Αναφέρεται επίσης αναλυτικά η εξέταση του μηχανισμού της τριοδικής λειτουργίας και το πώς θα μπορούσε να υπάρξει πρακτική εφαρμογή συστοιχιών, οι οποίες θα αποτελούνται από μια τριοδική κυψέλη. Η τριοδική λειτουργία των κελιών καυσίμου τύπου PEM υπό συνθήκες δηλητηριασμού της ανόδου με CO, οδηγεί σε σημαντική αύξηση της ισχύος του κελιού και συγκεκριμένα η τιμή της είναι τρείς φορές μεγαλύτερη από εκείνη που παράγεται κατά τη συμβατική λειτουργία της κυψέλης καυσίμου. Η αύξηση της παραγόμενης ισχύος, είναι μεγαλύτερη κατά ένα παράγοντα της τάξης του 1.32 από την ισχύ που καταναλώνεται στο βοηθητικό κύκλωμα, και οφείλεται σε σημαντική μείωση της ανοδικής υπέρτασης, η οποία με τη σειρά της είναι αποτέλεσμα του εφοδιασμού της ανόδου με πρωτόνια μέσω του βοηθητικού κυκλώματος. Αυτός ο εφοδιασμός με πρωτόνια, αυξάνει το ηλεκτροχημικό δυναμικό των πρωτονίων και το χημικό δυναμικό του υδρογόνου στην άνοδο, με αποτέλεσμα να μειώνεται η κάλυψη της ανόδου με CO και έτσι να ενισχύεται ο ρυθμός της ηλεκτροχημικής του οξείδωσης. Τέλος, στο κεφάλαιο 5 παρουσιάζονται τα τελικά συμπεράσματα που έχουν προκύψει από την παρούσα μελέτη, καθώς και προτάσεις για μελλοντική εργασία. / Fuel cells are electrochemical devices that can convert the chemical energy of a reaction directly into electrical energy. Their operation is based on the oxidation of a fuel, taking part at the anode, and the reduction of an oxidant, taking part at the cathode. Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) fuel cells use as the electrolyte a polymer membrane with H+ conductivity. PEMs work at a temperature range 30-100oC and this technology is promising and close to commercialization. The most common fuel used is hydrogen. However, H2 is not directly available, and has to be extracted from other sources, usually via hydrocarbon or alcohol reforming. During this procedure carbon monoxide is formed as well. When a reformate mixture is fed to the anode of a PEM, CO adsorbs strongly on the anode, leaving few remaining sites for the adsorption of H2, and thus causing severe degradation in PEMs performance. The aim of this thesis was to study τhe role of Nafion content in sputtered IrO2 based anodes for low temperature PEM water electrolysis and also it was examined the enhanced performance of CO poisoned proton exchange membrane fuel cells via triode operation. The first chapter refers to the technology of fuel cells, their operating principles and the thermodynamic aspects. It is focused on the PEM fuel cells, the state-of-the-art materials used and the problem of water management. The second chapter gives an introduction about hydrogen which is a very prominent fuel and can straightly change the economy that is based on fossil fuels. Firstly, in this chapter is presenting, a throwback of hydrogen and a short presentation of methods of hydrogen production. Chapter 3 refers to PEM water electrolysis. It is presenting a theoretical introduction about electrolysis process and a description of the sets up that are used for electrolysis. The procedure for preparing a membrane electrode assembly and the experimental setup are also described. Stable water electrolysis was achieved in a PEM, with 100% selectivity to oxygen, using IrO2 electrodes sputter-deposited on a Ti/C support interfaced with the Nafion electrolyte. It was found that the amount of Nafion content on the electrode can affect both the rate of the oxygen evolution and the oxygen selectivity. It also appears that Nafion ionomer addition protects the C-IrO2 active sites for carbon oxidation leading to 100% selectivity to oxygen. In chapter 4 is studied the effect of triode operation on the performance of CO poisoned PEM fuel cells One of the main problems associated with the practical utilization of PEMFC units is that of CO poisoning of the Pt-based anode. This is because hydrogen-rich reformates of light hydrocarbons or liquid alcohols inevitably contain significant levels of carbon monoxide that poisons the anode and degrades fuel cell performance. The objective of this work is to investigate an alternative approach for enhancing the PEMFC performance under CO poisoning conditions by using the recently described triode fuel cell design and operation. Firstly, in chapter 4 it is described, the operating principle of the triode set up, the preparation of the electrodes and the MEA preparation. Also it is described the exact geometry of the triode set up and the schematic of a possible design of a triode PEMFC stack. It is delineated the procedure that was followed in order to obtain all the experimental data. First are presented the experimental results obtained in the conventional fuel cell operation mode without and with CO added to the anode feed gas and then proceed with the detailed presentation of the triode operation results. Ιt is also mentioned the investigation of the triode operation mechanism and the design of a triode PEMFC stuck. Triode operation of CO poisoned PEM fuel cells leads to very significant, threefold, increase in power output of the fuel cell circuit. This increase in power output is up to a factor of 1.32 larger than the power sacrificed in the auxiliary circuit and is mainly due to a significant decrease in anodic overpotential caused by the supply of protons to the anode via the auxiliary electrode. This proton supply increases the electrochemical potential of protons and chemical potential of hydrogen at the anode, thus decreasing the coverage of CO and enhancing its electrooxidation rate. Finally, the general conclusions of this study and proposals for future studies are given in chapter 5.

Este trabalho investigou a obtenção de filmes de óxido de cobalto por spray pirólise e sua caracterização para emprego como eletrocatalisador na geração de H2 por eletrólise de águas naturais via energia solar. A função desse eletrocatalisador é reduzir os sobrepotenciais necessários para eletrolisar a água e a decompor em hidrogênio e oxigênio. Para tanto, soluções precursoras de nitrato de cobalto hexahidratado foram depositadas por spray pirólise sobre uma camada de óxido de estanho dopado com flúor (FTO, em inglês) sobre um vidro sodocálcico, a diferentes concentrações e parâmetros de processo. Foram variadas a temperatura do substrato (de 190°C a 300°C), a distância entre o bico aspersor e o substrato (150 mm a 270mm). Os filmes de óxido de cobalto obtidos foram caracterizados quanto à sua cristalinidade por difração de raio-x, e quanto a sua morfologia por microscopia eletrônica de varredura. Os resultados mostraram uma forte influência da temperatura do substrato, relacionada com a natureza do solvente e do substrato, na obtenção de filmes contínuos e com aderência. Para avaliar seu desempenho na eletrólise da água, os filmes de óxido de cobalto obtidos foram ensaiados em uma célula eletroquímica, utilizando três águas distintas: água destilada, água do lago Guaíba (Porto Alegre-RS, Brasil) e do mar (Cidreira-RS, Brasil). Foi avaliada a sua eficiência na geração de hidrogênio e oxigênio, utilizando um voltâmetro de Hoffmann, pelo qual se obtinha o volume de gases gerados na eletrólise. A energia necessária para a separação da água foi fornecida por uma célula fotovoltaica exposta à radiação solar. Da mesma forma, foi avaliada sua atividade catalítica em função do tempo de eletrólise. Os resultados indicaram que os filmes eletrocatalisadores de óxido de cobalto obtidos por spray pirólise mostraram-se capazes de catalisar a eletrólise da água, baixando o sobrepotencial necessário, para todas as águas investigadas. A viabilidade de acoplar tal sistema de eletrólise de águas naturais a painéis fotovoltaicos mostrou-se viável e de grande interesse. Esta comprovação de geração de hidrogênio através de águas naturais define um curso para a implantação em larga escala de energia solar através de um mecanismo para o seu armazenamento como combustível. / This study investigated the obtaining of cobalt oxide films by spray pyrolysis and its characterization as electrocatalyst for use in the generation of H2 by electrolysis of natural water via solar energy. The function of this electrocatalyst is to reduce overpotentials needed to electrolyze water and decompose into hydrogen and oxygen. To this end, precursor solutions of cobalt nitrate hexahydrate were deposited by spray pyrolysis on a layer of fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) onto a soda lime glass at different concentrations and process parameters. The substrate temperature (190°C to 300 °C), the distance between the spray nozzle and the substrate (150 mm to 270mm) were varied. The films of cobalt oxide obtained were characterized for their crystallinity by x -ray diffraction, and by their morphology by scanning electron microscopy. The results showed a strong influence on the temperature of the substrate, linked to the nature of the solvent and substrate to obtain continuous films and adhesion. To assess their performance in the electrolysis of water, the films of cobalt oxide obtained were tested in an electrochemical cell using three different water: distilled water, lake water Guaiba (Porto Alegre - RS, Brazil) and the sea (Cidreira- RS, Brazil). We evaluated its effectiveness in the generation of hydrogen and oxygen, using a voltmeter Hoffmann, which was obtained by the volume of gas generated in the electrolysis. The energy required for water separation was supplied by a photovoltaic cell exposed to solar radiation. Similarly, we assessed the efficiency loss due to the electrolysis. The results indicated that the electrocatalyst cobalt oxide films obtained by spray pyrolysis were capable of catalyzing the electrolysis of water, lowering the overpotential required for all waters investigated. The feasibility of such a system of coupled natural water electrolysis photovoltaic panels proved to be feasible and of great interest. This proof of hydrogen generation through natural waters sets a course for the large-scale deployment of solar energy through a mechanism for storage as fuel.

Este trabalho investigou a obtenção de filmes de óxido de cobalto por spray pirólise e sua caracterização para emprego como eletrocatalisador na geração de H2 por eletrólise de águas naturais via energia solar. A função desse eletrocatalisador é reduzir os sobrepotenciais necessários para eletrolisar a água e a decompor em hidrogênio e oxigênio. Para tanto, soluções precursoras de nitrato de cobalto hexahidratado foram depositadas por spray pirólise sobre uma camada de óxido de estanho dopado com flúor (FTO, em inglês) sobre um vidro sodocálcico, a diferentes concentrações e parâmetros de processo. Foram variadas a temperatura do substrato (de 190°C a 300°C), a distância entre o bico aspersor e o substrato (150 mm a 270mm). Os filmes de óxido de cobalto obtidos foram caracterizados quanto à sua cristalinidade por difração de raio-x, e quanto a sua morfologia por microscopia eletrônica de varredura. Os resultados mostraram uma forte influência da temperatura do substrato, relacionada com a natureza do solvente e do substrato, na obtenção de filmes contínuos e com aderência. Para avaliar seu desempenho na eletrólise da água, os filmes de óxido de cobalto obtidos foram ensaiados em uma célula eletroquímica, utilizando três águas distintas: água destilada, água do lago Guaíba (Porto Alegre-RS, Brasil) e do mar (Cidreira-RS, Brasil). Foi avaliada a sua eficiência na geração de hidrogênio e oxigênio, utilizando um voltâmetro de Hoffmann, pelo qual se obtinha o volume de gases gerados na eletrólise. A energia necessária para a separação da água foi fornecida por uma célula fotovoltaica exposta à radiação solar. Da mesma forma, foi avaliada sua atividade catalítica em função do tempo de eletrólise. Os resultados indicaram que os filmes eletrocatalisadores de óxido de cobalto obtidos por spray pirólise mostraram-se capazes de catalisar a eletrólise da água, baixando o sobrepotencial necessário, para todas as águas investigadas. A viabilidade de acoplar tal sistema de eletrólise de águas naturais a painéis fotovoltaicos mostrou-se viável e de grande interesse. Esta comprovação de geração de hidrogênio através de águas naturais define um curso para a implantação em larga escala de energia solar através de um mecanismo para o seu armazenamento como combustível. / This study investigated the obtaining of cobalt oxide films by spray pyrolysis and its characterization as electrocatalyst for use in the generation of H2 by electrolysis of natural water via solar energy. The function of this electrocatalyst is to reduce overpotentials needed to electrolyze water and decompose into hydrogen and oxygen. To this end, precursor solutions of cobalt nitrate hexahydrate were deposited by spray pyrolysis on a layer of fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) onto a soda lime glass at different concentrations and process parameters. The substrate temperature (190°C to 300 °C), the distance between the spray nozzle and the substrate (150 mm to 270mm) were varied. The films of cobalt oxide obtained were characterized for their crystallinity by x -ray diffraction, and by their morphology by scanning electron microscopy. The results showed a strong influence on the temperature of the substrate, linked to the nature of the solvent and substrate to obtain continuous films and adhesion. To assess their performance in the electrolysis of water, the films of cobalt oxide obtained were tested in an electrochemical cell using three different water: distilled water, lake water Guaiba (Porto Alegre - RS, Brazil) and the sea (Cidreira- RS, Brazil). We evaluated its effectiveness in the generation of hydrogen and oxygen, using a voltmeter Hoffmann, which was obtained by the volume of gas generated in the electrolysis. The energy required for water separation was supplied by a photovoltaic cell exposed to solar radiation. Similarly, we assessed the efficiency loss due to the electrolysis. The results indicated that the electrocatalyst cobalt oxide films obtained by spray pyrolysis were capable of catalyzing the electrolysis of water, lowering the overpotential required for all waters investigated. The feasibility of such a system of coupled natural water electrolysis photovoltaic panels proved to be feasible and of great interest. This proof of hydrogen generation through natural waters sets a course for the large-scale deployment of solar energy through a mechanism for storage as fuel.

Este trabalho investigou a obtenção de filmes de óxido de cobalto por spray pirólise e sua caracterização para emprego como eletrocatalisador na geração de H2 por eletrólise de águas naturais via energia solar. A função desse eletrocatalisador é reduzir os sobrepotenciais necessários para eletrolisar a água e a decompor em hidrogênio e oxigênio. Para tanto, soluções precursoras de nitrato de cobalto hexahidratado foram depositadas por spray pirólise sobre uma camada de óxido de estanho dopado com flúor (FTO, em inglês) sobre um vidro sodocálcico, a diferentes concentrações e parâmetros de processo. Foram variadas a temperatura do substrato (de 190°C a 300°C), a distância entre o bico aspersor e o substrato (150 mm a 270mm). Os filmes de óxido de cobalto obtidos foram caracterizados quanto à sua cristalinidade por difração de raio-x, e quanto a sua morfologia por microscopia eletrônica de varredura. Os resultados mostraram uma forte influência da temperatura do substrato, relacionada com a natureza do solvente e do substrato, na obtenção de filmes contínuos e com aderência. Para avaliar seu desempenho na eletrólise da água, os filmes de óxido de cobalto obtidos foram ensaiados em uma célula eletroquímica, utilizando três águas distintas: água destilada, água do lago Guaíba (Porto Alegre-RS, Brasil) e do mar (Cidreira-RS, Brasil). Foi avaliada a sua eficiência na geração de hidrogênio e oxigênio, utilizando um voltâmetro de Hoffmann, pelo qual se obtinha o volume de gases gerados na eletrólise. A energia necessária para a separação da água foi fornecida por uma célula fotovoltaica exposta à radiação solar. Da mesma forma, foi avaliada sua atividade catalítica em função do tempo de eletrólise. Os resultados indicaram que os filmes eletrocatalisadores de óxido de cobalto obtidos por spray pirólise mostraram-se capazes de catalisar a eletrólise da água, baixando o sobrepotencial necessário, para todas as águas investigadas. A viabilidade de acoplar tal sistema de eletrólise de águas naturais a painéis fotovoltaicos mostrou-se viável e de grande interesse. Esta comprovação de geração de hidrogênio através de águas naturais define um curso para a implantação em larga escala de energia solar através de um mecanismo para o seu armazenamento como combustível. / This study investigated the obtaining of cobalt oxide films by spray pyrolysis and its characterization as electrocatalyst for use in the generation of H2 by electrolysis of natural water via solar energy. The function of this electrocatalyst is to reduce overpotentials needed to electrolyze water and decompose into hydrogen and oxygen. To this end, precursor solutions of cobalt nitrate hexahydrate were deposited by spray pyrolysis on a layer of fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) onto a soda lime glass at different concentrations and process parameters. The substrate temperature (190°C to 300 °C), the distance between the spray nozzle and the substrate (150 mm to 270mm) were varied. The films of cobalt oxide obtained were characterized for their crystallinity by x -ray diffraction, and by their morphology by scanning electron microscopy. The results showed a strong influence on the temperature of the substrate, linked to the nature of the solvent and substrate to obtain continuous films and adhesion. To assess their performance in the electrolysis of water, the films of cobalt oxide obtained were tested in an electrochemical cell using three different water: distilled water, lake water Guaiba (Porto Alegre - RS, Brazil) and the sea (Cidreira- RS, Brazil). We evaluated its effectiveness in the generation of hydrogen and oxygen, using a voltmeter Hoffmann, which was obtained by the volume of gas generated in the electrolysis. The energy required for water separation was supplied by a photovoltaic cell exposed to solar radiation. Similarly, we assessed the efficiency loss due to the electrolysis. The results indicated that the electrocatalyst cobalt oxide films obtained by spray pyrolysis were capable of catalyzing the electrolysis of water, lowering the overpotential required for all waters investigated. The feasibility of such a system of coupled natural water electrolysis photovoltaic panels proved to be feasible and of great interest. This proof of hydrogen generation through natural waters sets a course for the large-scale deployment of solar energy through a mechanism for storage as fuel.

Le dihydrogène se présente comme un vecteur énergétique d'avenir pour la diversification des sources de production d'énergie. L'électrolyse de l'eau dans le système PEMWE (Proton Exchange Membrane Water Electrolyzer) permet l'obtention de dihydrogène de grande pureté. Les atouts de cette technologie induite par l'utilisation d'assemblage membrane électrode (AME) permettent son couplage aux énergies renouvelables. Toutefois, l'amélioration de l'activité catalytique des matériaux anodiques et leur stabilité pour baisser la tension de cellule et la diminution de la teneur en métaux nobles dans la composition des matériaux sont nécessaires.Lors de ces travaux de thèse, une voie de synthèse a été élaborée pour préparer des nanomatériaux à base de ruthénium. L'ajout d'iridium a permis dans un premier temps de prévenir l'oxyde de ruthénium de la dissolution tout en maintenant l'activité du catalyseur initial. Les meilleures performances catalytiques des AMEs en termes de densité de courant, de tension de cellule et de durabilité ont été délivrées avec les matériaux anodiques dont la composition molaire en Ru est supérieure à 70 %. La substitution partielle des métaux précieux (Ru et Ir) par du cérium et du niobium dans le but de proposer des catalyseurs à moindre coût a été aussi réalisée. Contrairement au niobium qui apporte une phase amorphe dans la structure du matériau, le cérium jusqu'à une teneur de 10 % permet de conserver les performances de l'anode telles que obtenues dans le matériau bimétallique. Le cérium se présente donc comme un métal prometteur à intégrer de manière appropriée dans la composition des matériaux anodiques. / Hydrogen seems to be the most promising energetic vector in order to diversify the sources of energy production. Water splitting in a Proton Exchange Membrane Water Electrolyzer (PEMWE) provides a sustainable way of producing clean hydrogen. One of the main advantages of this technology based on the utilization of Membrane Electrode Assembling (MEA) is its potential coupling with renewable energy sources. However, the improvement of the catalytic activity of anode materials, their stability and the reduction of the noble metal content in their composition are required.During this thesis work, a new synthesis approach that consists in hydrolysis of metallic precursors in ethanol medium has been undertaken to prepare non-supported ruthenium-based nanomaterials. The addition of iridium to the nanocatalysts composition prevents the ruthenium oxide from dissolution without decreasing the initial activity of the anode catalyst. The best catalytic performance of MEAs in terms of current density, cell voltage and durability were observed with anode materials whose ruthenium molar composition is higher than 70 %. The partial substitution of precious metals (Ru and Ir) either by cerium or niobium with the purpose of decreasing the catalysts cost was also attempted. While the substitution with niobium introduces an amorphous phase in the material structure, the trimetallic materials containing cerium were shown to be crystalline. Furthermore, cerium contents up to 10 % allows maintaining the catalytic activity of the trimetallic anode close to that obtained with the bimetallic oxide material. Thus cerium appears as a promising metal to include in a suitable way on the composition of anode materials.

Les travaux présentés dans ce mémoire concernent les composants d'assemblages membrane-électrodes (AMEs) pour électrolyseur à membrane échangeuse de protons (PEM – proton exchange membrane) fonctionnant à moyenne température. L'électrolyse de l'eau PEM, alimentée par l'énergie électrique provenant de sources renouvelables, est une voie pour la production efficace et durable d'hydrogène de haute pureté. De nouveaux électrolytes polymère solides (un des principaux éléments de la cellule d'électrolyse) à double conduction, basés sur un réseau semi-interpénétré créé par le polybenzimidazole sulfoné et l'acide polyphosphonique, ont été étudiés. Les membranes perfluorosulfonées (PFSA) à chaîne latérale courte et le composite PFSA-phosphate de zirconium (ZrP) ont également été étudiés. Les matériaux catalytiques de l'anode à base d'oxyde d'iridium ont été préparés par hydrolyse et calcination. L'oxyde d'iridium (IrO2), les oxydes bimétalliques (Ir/Ru) et ternaires (Ir/Ru/Ta) oxydes ont été étudiés par voie électrochimique dans la gamme de températures comprises entre 20 et 120 °C. Les caractérisations physico-chimiques ont confirmé la formation de structures d'oxyde et l'absence de particules de chlorures ou de métal résiduels. On observe une diminution de la tension de cellule, quelle que soit la densité de courant, lorsque la température augmente. Le catalyseur a été déposé sur la membrane, soit par pulvérisation directe ou par transfert en utilisant un support inerte (décalque). Aucune différence significative n'a été observée en appliquant les deux méthodes de dépôt. Les performances s'améliorent lorsque la température augmente pour tous les échantillons. L'assemblage comprenant une membrane de type PFSA, Aquivion®, de masse équivalente 870 meq.g-1 et d'une épaisseur de 120 µm, a montré de meilleures performances pour l'électrolyse de l'eau à 120 °C comparé à l'assemblage comprenant une membrane composite Aquivion® / ZrP, tandis qu'une membrane de type de polybenzimidazole sulfoné à liaison éther, poly-[(1-(4,4'-diphényléther)-5-oxybenzimidazole)-benzimidazole], a montré des performances prometteuses et aucune limitation de transport jusqu'à 2 A.cm-2. Les meilleurs performances ont été observées à 120 °C pour un assemblage préparé par pulvérisation directe de IrO2 sur une membrane Aquivion®; 1,67 V à 2 A.cm-2. / Preparation and investigation of the main components of membrane electrode assemblies (MEAs) for medium temperature proton exchange membrane water electrolysis (PEMWE) are described in this manuscript. Moderate temperature PEMWE, nourished by electrical energy from renewable sources is a practical path to sustainable generation of hydrogen with high purity and efficiency. Novel solid polymer electrolytes (a key component of the electrolysis cell) with double functionality properties, based on highly sulfonated polybenzimidazole creating a semi-interpenetrating network with a polyphosphonic acid, were investigated. A short side chain perfluorosulfonated acid (PFSA) type membrane and PFSA-zirconium phosphate composite membrane were also studied. The anode catalyst materials based on iridium oxide were prepared using the aqueous hydrolysis method followed by calcination. IrO2, some bimetallic (Ir/Ru) and ternary (Ir/Ru/Ta) oxides were electrochemically investigated in a wide range of temperatures (20-120 °C). The physico-chemical characterisation confirmed the formation of oxide structures, absence of residual chloride or metal particles. All catalysts prepared showed decreasing voltage at any given current density with rising the temperature. Catalyst was deposited on the membrane either directly by spray deposition or by decal transfer. No significant difference was observed using both deposition method. The PEMWE performance was increasing with the temperature. The short-side-chain PFSA - Aquivion® ionomer of equivalent weight 870 meq.g-1, of thickness 120 µm, displayed higher water electrolysis performance at 120 °C than a composite membrane of Aquivion® with zirconium phosphate, while a sulfonated ether-linked polybenzimidazole, sulfonated poly-[(1-(4,4'-diphenylether)-5-oxybenzimidazole)-benzimidazole], showed promising performance and no mass transport limitations up to 2 A.cm-2. The lowest cell voltage was observed at 120 °C for an MEA prepared using spray-coating of IrO2 directly on the Aquivion® membrane, 1.67 V at 2 A.cm-2.

Les travaux précédents trouvés dans la littérature ont mis l'importance sur la pile à combustible PEM ou électrolyseur PEM. Certains articles ont étudié également la pile à combustible réversible et le système d'alimentation en hydrogène par énergie solaire en intégrant à la fois la pile à combustible et électrolyseur. Contrairement à un « Unitised regenerative fuel cell (URFC)», notre conception a un compartiment individuel pour chaque système de PEM-Fuel Cell et d'electrolyseur-PEM et nommé Quasi - URFC. Grâce à ce nouveau concept, l'objectif principal est de réduire le coût de la pile à combustible régénératrice (RFC) en minimisant le rapport de surface superficielle géométrique du catalyseur de l'assemblage membrane électrodes (AME) des deux modes dans la cellule. D'ailleurs, nous visons également à construire un RFC plus compact, léger et portable par rapport à une pile à combustible ou l'électrolyseur classique. Ce travail de recherche est divisé en trois parties : la modélisation et simulation numérique, l'assemblage du prototype et le travail d'expérimentation. Quant à la partie de modélisation, un modèle physique multi-2D a été développé dans le but d'analyser les performances d'une pile à combustible à régénérée à trois-compartiments, qui se compose d'une piles à combustible et d'électrolyseur. Ce modèle numérique est basée sur la résolution des équations de conservation de masse, du momentum, des espèces et du courant électrique en utilisant une approche par éléments finis sur des grilles 2D . Les simulations permettent le calcul de la vitesse, de la concentration de gaz, la densité de courant et les distributions de potentiels en mode pile à combustible et en mode d'électrolyse, ainsi nous aider à prédire le comportement de quasi - RFC. En outre, l'assemblage du premier prototype du nouveau concept de pile à combustible à combustible régénérée a été achevée et testée au cours des trois années d'études dans le cadre d'une thèse. Les résultats expérimentaux de la 3 Compartiments R-PEMFC ont été prometteurs dans les deux modes, soit en mode piles à combustible et soit en mode d'électrolyseur. Ces résultats valideront ensuite les résultats de la simulation, obtenus auparavant par la modélisation. / The past works found in the literature have focused on either PEM fuel cell or electrolyzer-PEM. Some of the papers even studied the unitised reversible regenerative fuel cell (URFC) and the solar power hydrogen system by integrating both fuel cell and electrolyzer. Unlike the URFC, our design has an individual compartment for each PEMFC and E-PEM systems and named Quasi-URFC. With this new concept, the main objective is to reduce the cost of regenerative fuel cell (RFC) by minimizing the ratio of the catalyst’s geometric surface area of the membrane electrode assembly (MEA) of both cell modes. Apart from that, we also aim to build a compact, light and portable RFC.This research work is divided into three parts: the modeling, assembly of the prototype and the experimentation work. As for the modeling part, a 2D multi-physics model has been developed in order to analyze the performance of a three chamber-regenerative fuel cell, which consists of both fuel cell and electrolyzer systems. This numerical model is based on solving conservation equations of mass, momentum, species and electric current by using a finite-element approach on 2D grids. Simulations allow the calculation of velocity, gas concentration, current density and potential's distributions in fuel cell mode and electrolysis mode, thus help us to predict the behavior of Quasi-RFC. Besides that, the assembly of the first prototype of the new concept of regenerative fuel cell has been completed and tested during the three years of PhD studies. The experimental results of the Three-Chamber RFC are promising in both fuel cell and electrolyzer modes and validate the simulation results that previously obtained by modeling.

Orientadores: Carla Kazue Nakao Cavaliero, Paulo Fabrício Palhavam Ferreira / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Mecânica / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-22T09:20:31Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 RiverosGodoy_GustavoArturo_D.pdf: 2492876 bytes, checksum: 99937cb490ddf587b5477bbd1ff7ade6 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013 / Resumo: A utilização de hidrogênio em veículos com células a combustível apresenta-se como uma solução que pode causar baixos impactos ambientais, além de poder trazer maior segurança energética, uma vez que pode ser produzido através de recursos energéticos disponíveis em cada país. Neste contexto, e considerando que o transporte de passageiros configura-se como um serviço público fundamental para a integração entre as regiões e os países, nessa tese focou-se no estudo técnico, econômico e ambiental da implementação de uma rodovia preparada para atender a demanda de hidrogênio no setor de transporte coletivo de passageiros. O trajeto escolhido foi à rota que une a cidade de Assunção/Paraguai com a cidade de São Paulo/Brasil. Especial ênfase foi dada ao custo de instalação e operação das estações de hidrogênio produzido através da eletrólise da água. Na análise colocaram-se duas possibilidades, sendo elas, i) a introdução de apenas um ônibus movido a hidrogênio, situação denominada de substituição mínima; e ii) a substituição de toda a frota que atende a rota em estudo, denominando-a como substituição máxima. O custo de implementação da primeira situação é de aproximadamente US$ 5,0 milhões e o custo operacional anual é de cerca de US$ 1,0 milhão. Com a segunda situação, o custo de implementação aumenta para US$ 17 milhões e a operação anual fica em torno de US$ 5,0 milhões. No caso do Paraguai, o custo do hidrogênio varia entre 8,50 US$/kg e 18,66 US$/kg. No caso do Brasil, estimaram-se entre 17,07 US$/kg e 28,30 US$/kg. A análise ambiental considerou as emissões evitadas de carbono com a substituição de óleo Diesel por hidrogênio eletrolítico em toda a frota de veículos. Para tanto, foi utilizada uma metodologia aprovada pela UNFCCC no âmbito dos projetos de MDL e que poderia ser aplicada para empreendimentos como o proposto na tese, obtendo-se como estimativa uma redução de emissões de 2.098 tCO2/ano / Abstract: The use of hydrogen in fuel cell vehicles is presented as a solution that may cause less environmental impact and as a mean of addressing energy security, considering it can be produced by energy resources available in each country. In this context, considering the passenger transport as a service in the public interest for integration between regions and countries, this thesis focused on technical, economic and environmental analysis by implementing a highway prepared to cover the hydrogen demand in the passenger transportation sector. They chose route is that one joins Asuncion/Paraguay and São Paulo/Brazil. Special emphasis on the installation and operation costs of hydrogen stations produced through the water electrolysis was given. Two possibilities were set, i) the introduction of only one hydrogenpowered bus, condition called minimal substitution, and ii) replacing the whole fleet that serves the route, called as maximal substitution. The implementation cost of the first one is roughly US$ 5.0 million and an annual operating cost of about US$ 1.0 million. In the second situation, the implementation cost amounts to US$ 17 million and annual operating around $ 5.0 million. In the case of Paraguay, hydrogen production cost varies between 8.50 US$/kg and 18.66 US$/kg. In the case of Brazil, the estimated costs vary between 17.07 US$/kg and 28.30 US$/kg. The environmental analysis performed verified the availability of an approved CDM methodology and its applicability for similar proposals, a reduction of emissions equal to 2098 tCO2/year, was estimated / Doutorado / Planejamento de Sistemas Energeticos / Doutor em Planejamento de Sistemas Energéticos

This thesis deals with Sector coupling problematics. First, it deals with the development and present situation in the generation and consumption of electric power and the development and present situation in the extraction and consumption of natural gas in the Czech Republic and in the European union. Further, the thesis deals with Sector coupling, this concept is explained, and it is adumbrated what questions it deals with. Then, the technologies that can be achieved in the future of Sector coupling are introduced. Pilot projects of these technologies are presented as part of the discussion about these technologies. Finally, a consideration of the future use of Sector coupling technologies in the Czech Republic is given.

Das Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit ist es, nanokristalline und laserpuls-strukturierte Elektroden für die alkalische Wasserelektrolyse zu untersuchten und hinsichtlich ihrer elektrokatalytischen Eigenschaft zu bewerten. Dabei besteht die Hauptaufgabe in der Aufklärung der Zusammenhänge zwischen der elektrokatalytischen Aktivität und der Struktur der Elektroden. Es soll der Effekt der nanokristallinen Kristallstruktur auf die Elektrodenaktivität aufgeklärt werden. Zudem stellt die elektrokatalytische Wirkung von Mo in Ni-Elektroden für die Wasserstoffentwicklungsreaktion eine zentrale Untersuchung in der vorliegenden Arbeit dar. Für die Sauerstoffentwicklungsreaktion soll der Einfluss von Fe in nanokristallinen Ni-Materialien näher analysiert und unter industriell relevanten Betriebsbedingungen bewertet werden. Zum anderen richtet sich der Fokus auf die Nutzung eines Ultrakurzpulslasers zur Strukturierung von Ni-Elektrodenoberflächen. Besonderes Augenmerk wird auf die Korrelation zwischen den individuellen Strukturmerkmalen, der erzielten Oberflächenvergrößerung und der elektrokatalytischen Aktivität bezüglich der Wasserstoffentwicklung gelegt. Zudem werden Langzeituntersuchungen bei Stromdichten von bis 1 A/cm² durchgeführt, um die Stabilität zu bewerten und Degradationsmechanismen aufzuklären.