Thesis (M.Dev.) --University of Limpopo, 2015 / The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of gender discrimination in water services provision on women empowerment in GaPila Village, located in Limpopo Province. Gender discrimination remains a major challenge both in the labour market and within households. The allocation of resources within households is still much gendered due to unequal gender relations in most rural areas. Men are allocated most resources within households and have many benefits than women. Such also manifest to children. Despite, women being major beneficiaries of the delivery of water services, they are discriminated against as they are not involved with the processes that precede the provision of such services. The study used both quantitative and qualitative research approach to establish the effects of gender discrimination in the provision of water services on women empowerment. The findings of the study illustrated that culture and tradition are the key to the inadequacy of women’s access to and control over management of water services. Cultural practices within communities either ignore female participation in water services management. Their participation is obstructed by lack of time, level of education, low self-esteem and flexibility due to substantial workload and numerous household responsibilities. The study also showed that according to local cultural beliefs, the status of women whether high or low, does not determine the amount of work that must be done by her at home, because irrespective of her status or career placement, her primary assignment is to care for the family/home. The study further revealed that women in the GaPila Village are allowed access to economic opportunities and participation roles during community meetings. Also, women are allowed to occupy positions such as chairperson, secretary and treasurer; however, due to culture and tradition, low self-esteem and lack of support from men, women do not take advantage of such opportunities to occupy these positions of authority in water services. Therefore, the study concluded that, as woman’s contributions regarding water services provision remains inconsequential because they are excluded from decision making processes that affect their level of living and prospects of empowerment. From a water services provision perspective, this study affirms the theoretical principle that discrimination against women disempowers them. Women are the beneficiaries of water services because most of their duties require water. As such, it is important for women to actively participate and to be involved in the management committee relating to water services and provision.

Rural water systems (RWS) are commonly used to provide water to households for domestic uses (drinking, cleaning, washing, and sanitation) in developing countries. Water supply practitioners often classify these systems as single-use water systems (SUS) or multiple-use water systems (MUS). Smallholder farming communities in rural western hills of Nepal typically use such systems for both domestic and income-generating productive activities (e.g., agriculture, livestock, dairy, bio-gas, Rakshi), regardless of whether they were designed for single or multiple water uses. Therefore, this research frames both systems as providing multiple-use water services that enhance the productive activity and livelihoods of small- holders. Little is known on the factors that influence the productive activity of households in the western middle hills of Nepal and the impact these activities have on the technical performance of water systems (measured by duration of system breakdowns). This research identifies the extent of water-related productive activities in rural Nepali households supported by single-use water systems (SUS) vs. multiple-use water systems (MUS), and explores the factors that enables households to engage in high-levels of productive activity. The vast majority of households were found to engage in small-scale productive activities no matter what the rural water systems were designed to support, and more than half of them earned an income from water-based activities. Households engaged in high-levels of productive activity farm as a primary occupation, use productive technologies, are motivated to pursue productive activities, have received water-related productive activity training, and have received external support related to productive activities. A multinomial regression was used to predict the factors associated with high levels of productive activities undertaken by small farms. A hierarchical regression model was then used to examine both household- and system-level variables that contribute to the breakdown of rural water systems, focusing on the duration of breakdowns. The predictors of water system breakdowns include social factors (household involvement in decision-making during water system planning and construction and a household's sense of ownership toward the water system), technical factors (the management capacity of the water user committee and activity level of the system operator), economic factors (income earned from water-based productive activities), and geographic factors (the distance from the village to the water source). Finally, a conceptual model was developed to help identify strategies for implementing and scaling-up MUS. Scaling-up strategies for MUS begin with community participation in lo- cal government planning and budgeting. Under a new Constitution that went into effect in January 2017, newly formed local governments are to be provided with the funding and budget authority to determine local service priorities and how these services will be funded, designed, and implemented. The scaling-up of MUS would require local government officials, water system users, and private actors to develop the technical and institutional capacity needed to build and manage MUS, including the many support services needed by small- holder growers to realize its benefits. This research also examines the potential approaches that could enable subsistence farmers to become viable commercial producers. While growers are typically risk-adverse producers, this research identifies the mediating factors that could expand the long-term engagement of these producers in commercial agricultural production. These factors include adequate access to year-round irrigation, the use of improved production technologies and practices, improved access to rural markets, and improved production skills. The findings of this research will also be of value to Governmental, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and private sector actors who are looking to effectively mobilize their resources and expertise in support of smallholder farming in the hills of Nepal. / Doctor of Philosophy / A vast majority of farmers in the western middle hills of Nepal are smallholders who often use family labor and follow traditional agricultural and water use practices. They have been traditionally using rural water systems to meet their multiple water needs alongside domes- tic uses (drinking, cleaning, washing, and sanitation). There is growing interest for these systems to also be used for small-scale productive activities such as growing vegetables and livestock production. Evidence shows that these activities are an important source of income for farming families. However, little is known on the conditions that are needed to expand these activities and improve livelihoods. This research identifies the conditions under which rural water systems can become productive and technically sound, and outlines the strategies that can be deployed to scale-up productive activities. The research examines a broad range of perspectives (from rural farmers to development experts) on the limited commercialization of rural agriculture in the rural middle hills of Nepal and the potential approaches to promoting agricultural growth and commercialization among small landholders. The substance farmers were found to require both the means and motivation (i.e., extensive support services such as access to markets, input suppliers, irrigation and agricultural technologies, and production training) to become commercial farmers. Second, more than 90% of households were engaged in small-scale water-based production activities and more than half of them earned an income from these activities. The research revealed the conditions that enabled these households to engage in high levels of productive activities. Further, the factors that affect water system breakdowns were investigated. Since farmers are engaged in small-scale production, the interlinkages between productive income and system performance were examined. Finally, the research explores how multiple-use water services have the potential to be scaled-up in the middle hills of Nepal and beyond. Successful scaling-up strategies begin with community participation in local government planning and budgeting. This activity needs to be supported by substantial capacity building among government officials, water system users, and private actors on the factors needed to expand the productive use of water. Broad implementation of multiple-use water systems also requires careful documentation and dissemination of their benefits to key state and non-state actors. The results from this research can be used to identify appropriate households, communities, and water systems for programs focused on expanding water and agricultural productivity. Therefore, this research will have important implications for the Nepali government with regards to what policy, capacity development, and institutional arrangements need to be addressed to implement productive and sustainable rural water systems. This research can also be of special interest to Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and private sector actors looking to effectively mobilize their resources and expertise relating to a smallholder farming in Nepal.

The recent reform of potable water service provisioning by means of the promulgation of the Water Services Act 108 of 1997 and the National Water Act 36 of 1998 in South Africa has started a process of addressing the imbalance that existed in regard to how the national resource was being distributed. Water is now recognised as a scarce resource that belongs to all the people of the country. Consequently, it should be managed in an integrated way for social and economic development – including future growth (Fuggle & Rabie, 2005:293; Reimann, Chimboza & Fubesi, 2012:446). What is required is an attitude that incorporates a sensitivity in the careful cognisance and management of ―the aggregate of surrounding objects, conditions, and influences that impact on the life and habits of man, or any other organism or collection of organisms (South Africa, 1989). The provision of potable water by water services authorities (WSAs) is an important basic service that faces a number of challenges, such as the use of an outdated infrastructure, the lack of skilled and knowledgeable people, improper planning, and the booming population that places overt pressure on the demand for service delivery. This study was, therefore, undertaken to investigate how a municipality – which is forced to obtain its potable water supply from nearby surface and groundwater catchments, could manage this supply in a more effective, efficient, equitable, economic and sustainable manner by means of improved co-operative governance and intergovernmental relations. The key motivation was thus to develop a plan that would manage water resources more effectively on strategic, tactical and operational levels within government structures and to assist in realising integrated water resources management (IWRM). The proposed plan could be used to develop a shared vision for the Dr Kenneth Kaunda District Municipality (Dr KKDM) municipal area of responsibility; and to provide an overview of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats regarding the management of water resources. A qualitative research design was used to conduct the study, which included a literature review, semi-structured interviews, data sampling and scientific analysis of responses. Furthermore, a case-study approach was followed by the researcher, with Dr KKDM as the unit of analysis (the locus). / Thesis (Ph.D. (Public Management and Governance))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013.

The recent reform of potable water service provisioning by means of the promulgation of the Water Services Act 108 of 1997 and the National Water Act 36 of 1998 in South Africa has started a process of addressing the imbalance that existed in regard to how the national resource was being distributed. Water is now recognised as a scarce resource that belongs to all the people of the country. Consequently, it should be managed in an integrated way for social and economic development – including future growth (Fuggle & Rabie, 2005:293; Reimann, Chimboza & Fubesi, 2012:446). What is required is an attitude that incorporates a sensitivity in the careful cognisance and management of ―the aggregate of surrounding objects, conditions, and influences that impact on the life and habits of man, or any other organism or collection of organisms (South Africa, 1989). The provision of potable water by water services authorities (WSAs) is an important basic service that faces a number of challenges, such as the use of an outdated infrastructure, the lack of skilled and knowledgeable people, improper planning, and the booming population that places overt pressure on the demand for service delivery. This study was, therefore, undertaken to investigate how a municipality – which is forced to obtain its potable water supply from nearby surface and groundwater catchments, could manage this supply in a more effective, efficient, equitable, economic and sustainable manner by means of improved co-operative governance and intergovernmental relations. The key motivation was thus to develop a plan that would manage water resources more effectively on strategic, tactical and operational levels within government structures and to assist in realising integrated water resources management (IWRM). The proposed plan could be used to develop a shared vision for the Dr Kenneth Kaunda District Municipality (Dr KKDM) municipal area of responsibility; and to provide an overview of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats regarding the management of water resources. A qualitative research design was used to conduct the study, which included a literature review, semi-structured interviews, data sampling and scientific analysis of responses. Furthermore, a case-study approach was followed by the researcher, with Dr KKDM as the unit of analysis (the locus). / Thesis (Ph.D. (Public Management and Governance))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2013.

abstract: Diarrheal diseases caused by poor water, sanitation and hygiene continue to kill more children in Sub-Saharan Africa's burgeoning informal urban settlements than in any other part of the world. In recent years, Delegated Management Model (DMM), a partnership in which a utility delegates service management to slum residents have been promoted as new models to improve services. This dissertation examines the benefits of DMM by comparing water services in three informal settlements in Kisumu city, Kenya: two slums where DMM has been implemented, and one, a control, where it has not. In addition, the research examined how school-based hygiene interventions could be designed to improve safe water and hygiene knowledge in urban informal settlements. This study compared outcomes of two approaches to hygiene education, one which combined messages with participatory water testing; the second used hygiene messages alone. Results of the DMM study showed that DMM implementation had lowered water cost and improved provider accountability. However, unhygienic water collection and handling practices on the part of the service users could contaminate drinking water that was clean at the delivery point, thus preventing the intended health outcomes of DMM from being realized. Results of the hygiene education intervention showed that one week after the inventions, hygiene knowledge among students who received the intervention that combined hygiene messages with participatory water testing was significantly improved. Evaluation of the intervention 12 months after implementation showed that the hygiene knowledge gained was sustained. The research findings suggest that: i) regular monitoring of water quality at the kiosks is essential to ensure that the DMM model achieves intended health outcomes, ii) sanitation conditions at kiosk sites need to be regulated to meet minimum hygiene standards, and iii) customers need to be educated on safe water collection and storage practices. Finally, school-based hygiene education could be made more effective by including hands-on water testing by students. Making sustainable impact on health and wellbeing of slum residents requires not only building effective partnerships for water delivery, but also paying close attention to the other points of intervention within the water system. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Sustainability 2014

Under 2007 trädde lagen (2006:412) om allmänna vattentjänster (LAV) i kraft. 6 § i denna lag säger att en kommun är skyldig att säkerställa vattenförsörjning och avlopp i ett "större sammanhang" om det behövs med hänsyn till skyddet för människors hälsa eller miljön, men ibland väljer kommuner att inte ansluta vissa områden till det kommunala verksamhetsområdet trots att villkoret i 6 § i LAV är uppfyllt. Dessa områden brukar benämnas § 6-områden, det vill säga områden som uppfyller villkoret "större sammanhang" enligt 6 § LAV, men som ändå ligger utanför kommunens verksamhetsområde. Men vad innebär det då att kommunerna ska säkerställa vattenförsörjning och avlopp i ett "större sammanhang"? Begreppet "större sammanhang" finns inte definierat i lagtexten, men enligt förarbeten kan man möjligen säga att 20 till 30 fastigheter kan ses som en gräns, som dock kan minskas om det finns särskilda skäl för det. Men hur tolkar kommunerna begreppet "större sammanhang" i 6 § lagen om allmänna vattentjänster? Det är den första frågeställningen som besvaras i studien. Den andra frågeställningen som besvaras är varför vissa områden i kommunerna ligger utanför verksamhetsområden trots att villkoret om "större sammanhang" är uppfyllt. Kommunerna som studien berör är Lerum, Lysekil, Skövde, Svenljunga och Vänersborg. För att svara på frågeställningarna har en kombination av, juridisk, kvantitativ och kvalitativ metod använts. Kommunernas VA-planer, som är ett underlag till den kommunala VAplaneringen, har granskats och intervjuer har genomförts för att komplettera VA-planerna samt ge en djupare förståelse för kommunernas beslut. Studien visar att det varierar från kommun till kommun hur de har valt att tolka begreppet "större sammanhang" då antalet fastigheter varierar från åtta till 20 stycken. En del av kommunerna använder dessutom begreppen "samlad bebyggelse" och "sammanhållen bebyggelse" från PBL, vilket är problematiskt då det är begrepp som rör PBL och inte återfinns i LAV. Vad det gäller den andra frågeställningen fanns det ett samband mellan hur kommunerna har bedömt områden som inte ska anslutas. Anledningen är att dessa områden är lågt prioriterade utifrån en behovs- och möjlighetsbedömning. / In 2007, the Public Water Services Act came in to effect. According to the sixth paragraph in this law, all municipalities shall arrange water supplies and sewerage in a "wider context" if it is necessary with respect to human health or the environment. But sometimes, municipalities choose not to connect certain areas to the operational area even though they should do so according to the sixth paragraph in the Public Water Services Act. These areas are commonly referred to as § 6 areas which means that these areas fulfill the condition "wider context" in the Public Water Services Act, but are outside the operational area. What does it mean that the municipalities shall ensure water supply and sewerage in a "wider context"? The term "wider context" is not defined in the legal text, but preparatory work to the law states that 20 to 30 properties can be seen as a guideline. This amount can be reduced if there are special reasons for it. But how do the municipalities interpret the term? This is the first question that this study answers. The second question that has been answered is why the municipalities choose to not connect some certain areas to the operational area, despite the fact that the conditions for "wider context" in the sixth paragraph are fulfilled. The study concerns the following municipalities: Lerum, Lysekil, Svenljunga, Skövde and Vänersborg. In order to gain information and to find answers to the questions, a combination between legal methodology, a quantitative and a qualitative method has been used. The municipalities VA-plans, which are guiding for municipal VA planning, have been reviewed and interviews have been conducted to supplement the VA-plans and provide a deeper understanding of municipal decisions. The study shows that it varies from municipality to municipality how the term "wider context" is interpreted as the number varies from eight to twenty properties included. Some of the municipalities also use the terms "assembled dwellings" and "assembled built environment" from the Planning and Building Act (2010:900). As for the second issue, there is a connection between how the municipalities have assessed these areas. The reason why some areas not are connected to any operational area is because they have a low priority based on a need and possibility assessment.

Magister Economicae - MEcon / In this thesis, I explore the allocation and use of water for productive and domestic purposes in the village of Siyandhani in the Klein Letaba sub-area, and how the allocation and use is being affected by new water resource management and water services provision legislation and policies in the context of water reform. This problem is worth studying because access to water for domestic and productive purposes is a critical dimension of poverty alleviation.The study focuses in particular on the extent to which policy objectives of greater equity in resource allocation and poverty alleviation are being achieved at local level with the following specific objectives: to establish water resources availability in Letaba/Shingwedzi sub-region, specifically surface and groundwater and examine water uses by different sectors (e.g. agriculture, industry, domestic, forestry etc.,); to explore the dynamics of existing formal and informal institutions for water resources management and water services provision and the relationship between and among them; to investigate the practice of allocation and use of domestic water; to investigate the practice of allocation and use of irrigation water.The study concludes that there is a problem of water scarcity in the study area and that the water scarcity is caused by the growth in the population, specifically in the Giyani area; these problems are exacerbated by financial and institutional obstacles within local institutions of governance. The water scarcity is not, therefore, natural but anthropogenic in nature.The water scarcity is not felt by all sectors, however: some farmers have access to water for irrigation, while many others face great challenges in their farming activities.Overall, people in Siyandhani and surrounding villages surrounding villages in the Letaba Catchment do not have access to water because of human action, hence the use of the concept of manufactured scarcity. The lack of access to water, it is argued,leads to the violation of the human right to water. This study concludes that water reform, which is widely seen as a priority for South Africa, has not yet reached the villages of the Klein Letaba.

Thesis (M. Dev. (Planning and Management)) -- University of Limpopo, 2019 / The provision of basic water services delivery to all South African citizens is one of the huge challenges for the local government and it is at the coalface of service delivery. The objective of the study was to determine the factors that influence water service delivery challenges in the local municipality of Makhuduthamaga, in Sekhukhune District Municipality. The statement of the problem, therefore, provided the foundation within which the aims of the study are explained. The significance of this research cannot be over-emphasised, especially against the backdrop that local government is the third sphere of government and is in the front line of service delivery. This study aimed at investigating the water service delivery challenges in the municipality of Makhuduthamaga in Sekhukhune District, Limpopo province. This research was necessitated by the lack of water in Makhuduthamaga Local Municipality. It is evident that there are several challenges in the delivery of water services in the local sphere, however, for the sake of this research only one municipality was selected as a case study. The study employed a qualitative case study research design to collect data from participants who were selected through a purposive sampling technique. The study participants included the local community representatives and the municipal officials responsible for water services in the municipality and the water resources available in the locality such as the Vergelegen, Nkadimeng and De Hoop dams. The finding shows that the available water sources are not adequate to cater for all the residents of the municipality; hence this affects the water delivery efforts of the municipality significantly. As a result, local residents have expressed their dissatisfaction through violent service delivery protests in different wards of the municipality. The study further reveals that the municipality has been facing serious water services challenges over several years. The issue emanates from the water sources which are dried up, illegal connections, incomplete projects by contractors, financial constraints, and poor maintenance planning. The main challenge here is the lack of water sources, poor maintenance, lack of skills and expertise from the employees in the water department, insufficient budget to relieve the water crisis in the municipality and the district at large. The municipality has implemented all the interventions, such as public participation to vi encourage communities to use water sparingly, to pay for services of the municipality for the sake of revenue enhancement and have drilled more boreholes to augment the water services to the communities. This study recommends that the municipality should prioritise their budgeting and align this to the community needs, hiring the correct personnel with relevant skills and expertise in the water related function. Also, the municipality needs to work on the turnaround time for the maintenance of pump stations and fixing of leaking water pipes. They should penalise all the illegally connected households so that they can curb all the recurring illegal connections. The other issue is to improve communications with the communities with relevant stakeholders to ensure that everyone is informed in case of water cuts due to maintenance or cleaning of water reservoirs.

Urbanisering och klimatförändringar i form av intensivare nederbörd är idag tvåproblemområden som båda påverkar hur samhället hanterar dagvatten, särskilt när dekombineras. Syftet med denna uppsats är därmed att undersöka hur dessa aspekter påverkar dagvattenhanteringen och vad som händer när det går fel vid planering och byggnation. Utöver det är målet att försöka identifiera områden som riskerar översvämmas på grund av detta. Till hjälp har en litteraturstudie gjorts samt platsbesök, intervjuer och analysering av flertalet kartor. Arbetet handlar om och utgår från Gustavslund, ett område i Vallentuna kommun. Här har det kommit fram att vid byggnation har dagvattnet inte hanterats korrekt och lett till översvämningar på äldre fastigheter. Dagvattensystemet och dess utloppspunkter är i grunden det störstaproblemet. Det beror delvis på felaktig planering från början i samband med lösningar som inte fungerat, men även dåligt ansvarstagande från kommunens sida. Vid planeringen utgicks det från att vardera fastighet skulle ta hand om vattnet själva med hjälp av lokalt omhändertagande av dagvatten (LOD), men detta har inte genomförts. Dagvattnet leds till ett fåtal fastigheter där det i dagsläget har svårt att föras vidare. Detta är på grund av klena trummor under närliggande väg som lutar fel samt ett pumpsystem och diken med dålig kapacitet. Även ledningar, både privata och gemensamma, med dålig prestanda bidrar till problematiken. Baserat påGustavslund kan ett par slutsatser dras i ett försök att identifiera liknande riskområden.Indikationer kan innebära bland annat att privata ledningar finns som inte kan hantera mängden vatten eller att stora höjdskillnader förekommer och leder till naturliga vattensamlingar ibostadsområden. Förhoppningarna med denna rapport är att snabbare hitta problemområden och åtgärda dessa innan problem med översvämningar uppstår. / Urbanization and climate change in the shape of more intense rainfall are today two problematic areas that both affect how society handles stormwater, especially when they are combined. The purpose of this essay is to examine how these two aspects contribute to stormwatermanagement and what happens when it goes poorly when planning and building. On top of that the goal is to identify areas that risk flooding because of this. To help with this a literature study has been done as well as a site visit, interviews and analysis of several maps. This study isabout and based upon Gustavslund, an area within Vallentuna municipality. It’s been known that the stormwater treatment when building here has not been done correctly which has led tofloodings at older properties. The system for run-off water and its outlet points is mainly the biggest problem. This is partly due to poor planning in combination with solutions that did not work, but also bad responsibility taking from the municipality. When planning it was assumedthat each household was to handle the run-off water on their own, but this has not been done. The water ends up on a few properties where it can barely keep going. This is because of feeble road drums turned the wrong way but also a pump system and ditches with low capacity. Also pipelines, both private and communal, with poor dimensions contribute to the problem. Based on Gustavslund, a few conclusions can be drawn to try and identify similar areas at risk.Indications can for instance involve private pipes that cannot handle the amount of water or big height differences in the terrain that leads to places where water gathers naturally in residential areas. Hopefully this report will help find these problematic areas faster and remedy thesebefore problems with flooding occur.

This study is non-empirical and its design is based on three forms of analysis: conceptualisation, theoretical justification and strategic considerations for a participatory model in the water services sector in South Africa. In terms of the conceptualisation, the study addresses the old and new paradigms of sustainable development. First, it argues that for many years the concept of sustainable development has long dominated the development discourse. Second, the theoretical justification traces the evolution and meanings of sustainable development and also patterns and trends of the legacies of colonialism and apartheid. The descriptive analysis of apartheid and colonialism suggests a new development path for inclusive people-centred development. The study therefore postulates that in the South African context, sustainable development is both a political and a historical construct. This is the basis within which sustainable development should be understood. Third, the study concludes that context plays an important part in understanding and challenging the immoral and unjust practices of colonialism and apartheid which have militated against sustainable human development. The study further provides a description of the local government and water sectors and their underpinned legislative and policy framework, and notes impressive results in the delivery of basic water supply since 1994. However, the study argues that in order for municipalities to fulfil their constitutional responsibilities as water services authorities, they need to adopt a participatory model towards sustainable development since this is currently lacking. In doing so, the water services sector needs to overcome dangers of parochialism which were more evident from the supply-driven policy of the government. The study therefore draws lessons from three Latin American countries: Chile, Bolivia and Nicaragua, and proposes a new developmental path which conforms to the principles of sustainability. This development path is represented in the form of a dynamic, diagrammatic model for participatory sustainable development. This model displays successive stages and cycles of transaction between stakeholders. The model represents a decision support system which provides a conceptual framework for the diagnosis, consolidation and analysis of information. The model is thus a useful tool which can be applied in the public sector during project or programme implementation. / Development Studies / D. Litt. et Phil. (Development Studies)