University of Macau / Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities / Department of Chinese

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Access to abstract restricted until 05/2017 / Access to thesis restricted until 05/2017 / School of Music

The Black Sea, with its oxic, suboxic and anoxic layers, provides a unique environment for studying how biological and geochemical processes affect the composition of particulate matter. The elemental composition of particles in the Black Sea is controlled by their origin and sources. Particles from rivers are dominated by aluminosilicate material that has compositions similar to the earth&rsquo / s crust. In general this material is relatively unreactive. Biological processes in the upper oxic and suboxic layers of the water column result in enrichments of elements which used as nutrients. Cu, Ba and Mo have been proposed as tracers for planktonic material and new production. Geochemical processes like manganese and iron recycling between oxidized and reduced forms, metal sulfide formation, and biogenic matter decomposition can have a large impact on the composition of particles in the suboxic and anoxic zones. The aim of this thesis was to study the composition of particles suspended in the water column of the Black Sea, in regional rivers draining into the Black Sea, and of particles deposited in these rivers and Black Sea sediments. The objectives were to determine the chemical composition and distribution of particles supplied by rivers and produced in the Black Sea, and compare with those particles buried in the sediments. The chemical distributions can help us to understand the biogeochemical processes taking place. The ultimate goal is to understand if there is a chemical signature that characterizes sediments deposited in anoxic basins that can be used to determine if ancient sedimentary rocks were deposited under such conditions. Water column filter samples were collected from the central western basin and along transects to the SW shelf regions during several research cruises of R/V Bilim and R/V Knorr in the Black Sea. Samples were taken by using both in situ large volume filtration systems and on deck vacuum filtration of discrete samples. River samples were collected by hand from the bank of four Turkish rivers and the Danube River. Sediment samples were obtained from 0 - 25 cm interval of a box core from the deep western basin. All samples were digested and analyzed by inductively coupled plasma - mass spectrometry and combination of atomic absorption (flame &amp / graphite furnace) instruments. The elements analyzed included Al, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Co, Cu, Zn, Mo, Ag, Cd, Ba, Pb, and U. Great care was taken to avoid contamination and to obtain the highest level of precision and accuracy. The precision was typically about 5% for most elements. The accuracy, determined using standard reference materials, was also usually better than 5%. Another goal of this research was to determine the metal concentrations and best digestion methods using different types of filter materials. Blank filters were digested and analyzed and the analyses of various filter blanks are presented in the thesis. The analyses showed that the particulate matter data from Turkish Rivers were very similar to the composition of global average riverine particulate material and global average crust. The Danube River had elevated concentrations for some elements that were probably due to anthropogenic contamination. The Turkish river samples were closer to (but still higher than) the averages for the world&rsquo / s rivers but many elements in the Danube were much higher. These high values determined for major elements in the Danube samples strongly suggest considerable contamination of the Danube as compared to the Turkish Rivers. The Danube River samples were especially enriched in Pb, Zn, Ag, Cu, Cd, and Mn and slightly enriched with Cr and Ni. The first five elements, in particular, are well known indicators of pollution. The particulate matter in the water column of the Black Sea was influenced by lithogenic input from rivers, biological processes and geochemical processes. In order to examine the biogeochemical processes extensively, all the data were plotted as Metal/Al (Me/Al) ratios and compared with the ratios of the average crust and Turkish Rivers. Deviations were used to examine the anomalies due to biological and geochemical processes. In addition, the Al content of individual sample and the Me/Al ratio of crust or rivers were used to subtract the lithogenic component from the total composition. Enrichments due to biological processes were observed for Ba &gt / Fe &gt / Cr &gt / Mn &gt / Zn &gt / Ni &gt / Cu &gt / Mo &gt / V &gt / Co &gt / Cd &gt / U for the overall biogenic composition. Enrichments due to biology are most evident for Ba, Fe, Cr and Mn. This is a unique data set as there have been few previous analyses of biological enrichment for most of these elements. The results of particulate matter analyses showed that some elements including U, V, Cr, Ni, Cu, Co, Zn, Ba and Mo were enriched in the set of samples from the euphotic zone. Redox cycling in the suboxic zone was observed, as expected, for Mn and Fe, whose oxides play an important role in scavenging processes. The redox dependent processes in the suboxic &ndash / anoxic interface influence the vertical distribution of U, Ni, Co, Cu, Zn, Ba and possibly Mo, Cr and V. Elements influenced by sulfide formation in the anoxic layer are Fe, Cr, Ni, Co, Mo, and presumably Ag. The sediment data were also examined based on the same approaches. The elements Zn, Pb, U and Cd decreased with sediment depth over the top 5 cm suggesting that they were remobilized out of the sediments. In general the sediments from the Black Sea have Me/Al ratios very similar to local Turkish Rivers and average crust. There is no unique sediment signature (except possibly for Mo) indicating that these sediments were deposited under sulphidic conditions. This study does not support the hypothesis that the composition of ancient rocks can be used to characterize the environment of deposition.

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乾隆年間蘇州曲家葉堂刊行的《納書楹曲譜》，為戲曲工尺譜之首，不僅在曲譜的發展脈絡中具有開創意義，且兼具選本性質，又為崑曲音樂作法集大成之作品，故筆者以其為研究對象，期對乾隆時期崑曲劇目的內容、作曲手法的發展，及葉譜承先啟後的重要性，展開翔實且深刻的論述。 葉堂於乾隆49年（1784）至60年（1795）間陸續刊行的曲譜，包括初刻《西廂記譜》、《納書楹曲譜》（正續外補四集）、《四夢全譜》、重鐫《西廂記全譜》，皆為帶曲文、板眼及工尺，不帶科白的樂譜，一時風行，號稱「葉譜」，其內容豐富，計收566齣／套曲，且訂譜成就向受稱道，影響深遠。筆者於撰述時，首先梳理乾隆時期蘇州的崑曲活動、葉堂之志趣及交遊、葉譜的刊行及影響，以為全文論述之基礎；繼而開展兩個主要的關注面向，第二章為葉譜選錄的內容，第三、四章則為葉堂訂譜的作法，為集中焦點，乃選擇最具曲樂創作意義之《四夢全譜》為核心，討論葉堂如何為馳騁才情、不拘格律的湯顯祖《四夢》曲文訂譜，以見在曲律及曲樂發展上的重要意義。 就葉譜選錄的內容，筆者歸納其特色有三：（一）「散齣」與「全本」兼收：《納書楹曲譜》選錄自元至清前期，名家名作與時俗流行的散齣，而《西廂記譜》與《四夢全譜》則為全本劇作。（二）「劇」與「曲」雙重觀照：除大量選入有曲可唱之演劇散齣，兼及新興時劇，又收錄部分可供清唱的散曲及散齣，尤其好尚北套曲。（三）「流行」與「追憶」並存：除選入當時流行的劇目，又有《千鍾祿‧慘睹》等，當是因葉譜收錄而引領演出風潮，至於《桃花扇》等漸次退出劇壇的散齣，葉譜的記錄則帶有追憶性質。再將葉譜收錄的內容與其前《九宮大成譜》等、其後殷溎深傳譜等刊行的曲譜相較，則可見收錄內容頗為相近；然而，曲譜的性質，則由重「曲」轉而至重「戲」，頗可比喻為「加上板眼、工尺的《綴白裘》」，由以記錄唱腔為主之樂譜，變為於演出頗有助益之臺本。 關於葉堂訂譜的作法，筆者以《四夢全譜》為核心，第三章先論「宛轉相就」之法，討論葉堂如何改調就詞，在譜曲時妥貼適應湯顯祖不盡合律的曲文。首先析論其中較富變化的集曲作法，以見不同曲牌的摘句如何銜接為集曲；其次，取鈕少雅《格正還魂記詞調》、馮起鳳《吟香堂牡丹亭曲譜》、劉世珩《雙忽雷閣彙訂還魂記曲譜》，與葉堂《納書楹四夢全譜》共同參照，綜論並評議各譜宛轉相就的處理方式，相較於諸家的作法往往較向「律」傾斜，葉堂訂譜的特殊之處在於：追求文、律、樂之間的平衡，故可見增刪部分曲文字句、移動板位以使語氣更為流暢、致力於以樂傳情，某些作法甚至遊走於合律邊緣，葉堂的手法固有獨到之處，然宜置入清前期曲律及曲樂發展的背景下考察，由《南詞新譜》、《南詞定律》、《九宮大成譜》漸次收錄《四夢》曲牌，可見曲律鬆動之趨勢，這些迥異於往的曲牌，無法套用既有腔調，故需曲譜記錄唱腔，然而，曲譜的刊行，雖便傳唱，卻也形同「定譜」，若過度襲用，反而侷限曲調發展。 第四章則比較諸譜《四夢》之曲腔，切入點有二：其一乃葉譜本身作法之比較，葉堂於相同曲牌，鑑於情境不同，各有變化發揮，展現曲牌音樂在律定字句及點板之下的活腔作法；其二乃與其他曲譜之比較，取葉堂為《四夢》所訂之曲腔，與其前《南詞定律》、《九宮大成譜》、其後《遏雲閣曲譜》等相同曲牌比較，固不乏曲腔一脈相承者，然亦見細節處的板眼、行腔參差變化，甚至腔句、曲牌之音樂構思不盡相同者，可見乾隆時期曲腔活潑變化之情形。最後，藉由比較的結果，探討曲樂相關問題，在曲文字聲與曲腔旋律方面，「依字行腔」雖是原則，然遇韻腳等處，則往往需配合全曲的結音；在曲牌行腔與固定曲調方面，每一牌調雖有其音樂框架，但實際的行腔，則是字聲與曲調互相調適而成；而綜觀葉譜的音樂成就，除首次為《四夢》訂定完整的工尺譜，更在於其作法有繼承亦有開創，可謂集曲樂作法之大成。 本文最後以「葉堂之曲樂觀點」、「葉譜之價值」綰結全文。就葉堂的觀點而言，重樂輕律，以盡度曲之妙；雅俗兼備，適度採錄時俗唱法、流傳劇目，俱見一代曲家的朗闊襟懷。就葉譜之價值而言，於刊行曲譜具有開創意義，為首度刊行之崑曲戲齣唱譜，收羅甚廣，兼有選本性質，乃藉譜以傳曲；且於曲樂發展具獨特貢獻，藉實際的訂譜成果，彰顯「不合律即不可歌」之謬，並將訂譜的觀照對象，由單隻曲牌之行腔，擴展為套內諸曲的和諧，其所譜曲腔，不僅穩稱湯顯祖揮灑才情之曲文，促成《四夢》在舞台上展演流傳，且安腔訂譜之法亦成為典範。