In the present work, zinc phthalocyanine and tetra nitro substituted zinc phthalocyanine were sytnhesized by using phthalic anhydride and nitro phthalic acid precursor respectively under microwave irradiation. Molecular structures of these pigments were confirmed by FT-IR and UV-visible spectroscopy analyses. Furthermore, these pigments were deposited on mica-titania pigment substrate in dimethyl formamide solvent to obtain the combination pigment. FT-IR analysis was conducted to analyze the deposition of pigments onto the mica-titania surfaces. Fluorescence spectroscopy analysis was performed to observe zinc phthalocyanine, tetra nitro zinc phthalocyanine pigments, and their combination pigment with mica- titania pigments. The surface morphologies of zinc phthalocyanines on the mica titania pigments were investigated by scanning electron microscopy. Optimum deposition temperature and deposition time were determined by v depositing varying amounts of zinc phthalocyanines. The paint samples of these combination pigments were prepared by alkyd based paint formulation. L*a*b* values of the paint samples were determined by color measuring spectrophotometry. The optimum deposition temperature was determined as 120 oC and the optimum deposition time was determined as half an hour and effective deposition was obtained at 120 &deg / C. It is observed that, with the increasing amount of ZnPc, the interaction between ZnPc particles increases and they desorp the surface of mica-titania pigment. The best result was obtained with 0.08 g ZnPc at 120 oC.

abstract: The absorption spectra of metal-centered phthalocyanines (MPc's) have been investigated since the early 1960's. With improved experimental techniques to characterize this class of molecules the band assignments have advanced. The characterization remains difficult with historic disagreements. A new push for characterization came with a wave of interest in using these molecules for absorption/donor molecules in organic photovoltaics. The use of zinc phthalocyanine (ZnPc) became of particular interest, in addition to novel research being done for azaporphyrin analogs of ZnPc. A theoretical approach is taken to research the excited states of these molecules using time-dependent density functional theory (TDDFT). Most theoretical results for the first excited state in ZnPc are in only limited agreement with experiment (errors near 0.1 eV or higher). This research investigates ZnPc and 10 additional porphyrin analogs. Excited-state properties are predicted for 8 of these molecules using ab initio computational methods and symmetry breaking for accurate time- dependent self-consistent optimization. Franck-Condon analysis is used to predict the Q-band absorption spectra for all 8 of these molecules. This is the first time that Franck-Condon analysis has been reported in absolute units for any of these molecules. The first excited-state energy for ZnPc is found to be the closest to experiment thus far using a range-separated meta-GGA hybrid functional. The theoretical results are used to find a trend in the novel design of new porphyrin analog molecules. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Materials Science and Engineering 2014

Orientador: Carlos José Leopoldo Constantino / Banca: José Alberto Giacometti / Banca: Henrique de Santana / Banca: Eduardo René Perez Gonzalez / Banca: Marcelo Mulato / Banca: Rogério Pinto Mota / O Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciência e Tecnologia de Materiais, PosMat, tem caráter institucional e integra as atividades de pesquisa em materiais de diversos campi da Unesp / Resumo: Neste trabalho foram preparados filmes finos de ftalocianinas de zinco (ZnPc) e de níquel (NiPc) através da técnica de evaporação térmica à vácuo (PVD - physical vapor deposition) em diversas espessuras e em escala nanométrica com o objetivo de determinar a arquitetura molecular destes filmes bem como suas propriedades ópticas e elétricas. Em última análise buscam-se gerar subsídios para as possíveis aplicações, especialmente dispositivos eletrônicos a base de semicondutores orgânicos e sensores de gás. A ZnPc e a NiPc em pó foram caracterizadas utilizando-se as técnicas de termogravimetria (TG), calorimetria exploratória diferencial (DSC) e os filmes PVD por espectroscopias de absorção no ultravioleta-visível (UV-vis), no infravermelho com transformada de Fourier (FTIR), espalhamento Raman, difração de raios-X, microscopias óptica e de força atômica (AFM) e caracterização elétrica cc (tensão x corrente). Os resultados mostraram que é possível a fabricação de filmes PVD de ZnPc e NiPc, uma vez que estas moléculas não são termicamente degradadas durante o processo de evaporação térmica a vácuo, e que o crescimento dos filmes pode ser controlado em escala nanométrica para ambos os materiais. Em termos estruturais, os filmes PVD de ZnPc e NiPc são cristalinos (forma α) e possuem as moléculas arranjado-se na forma de agregados e monômetros e ordenadas com o anel macrociclo inclinado em relação à superfície do substrato. Tais agregados podem ser vistos em escala nanométrica, porém, em escala micrométrica os filmes apresentam-se morfologicamente homogêneos. Em relação às propriedades ópticas e elétricas, observou-se que ambos os filmes PVD absorvem na região do visível com a ZnPc apresentando fotoluminescência quando irradiado com laser 785 nm. A condutividade elétrica é de 1,2x'10 POT. -10' S/m para a ZnPc e de 72x'10 POT... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: In this work thin films of phthalocyanines of zinc (ZnPc) and nickel (NiPc) were fabricated through the vacuum thermal evaporation technique (PVD - physical vapor deposition) for different thicknesses at nanometric scale with the objective of determining the molecular architecture of these films as well as their optical and electrical properties. The final idea is to generate subsidies for applications of these films in electronic devices based on organic semiconductors and gas sensors. The PVD films were characterized using thermogravimetry (TG), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), ultraviolet-visible (UV-vis) and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) absorption spectroscopies, Raman scattering, X-ray diffraction, optical and atomic force (AFM) microscopies, and electrical characterization (tension x current dc). The results showed that the fabrication of ZnPc and NiPc films is possible since these molecules are not thermally degraded during the process of vacuum thermal evaporation and that the growth of the films can be controlled at nanometric scale for both materials. Structurally, the PVD films of ZnPc and NiPc possess the molecules organized with the macrocycle ring tilted in relation to the substrate surface. They are crystalline (α form) and possess molecular aggregates in the form of dimmers or higher order of aggregates and monomers. Such aggregates can be seen at nanometric scale, however, at micrometric scale the films are morphologically homogeneous. In relation to the optical and electrical properties, it was observed that boh PVD films absorb in the visible region with the ZnPc presenting photoluminescence when irradiated with the 785 nm laser line. The electric conductivity at 1,2x'10 POT. -10' S/m for ZnPc and 72x'10 POT. -10' S/m for NiPc. They also presented photoconductivity with the ZnPc more photoconductor than NiPc. Finally, after thermal treatment... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Doutor

Orientador: Prof. Dr. Wendel Andrade Alves / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Federal do ABC, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Nanociências e Materiais Avançados, 2016. / Estudou-se a conjugação de micro/nanotubos de L,L-difenilalanina (MNTs-FF) com dois tipos de fluoróforo: hipericina (Hyp) e ftalocianinas de zinco (ZnPc), visando aplicação na terapia fotodinâmica. Foram feitas investigações sobre conjugados contendo hipericina organizados em diferentes arranjos cristalinos, uma fase hexagonal (P61) e outra ortorrômbica (P22121). Os resultados obtidos evidenciam uma maior eficiência na geração de espécies reativas de oxigênio (ROS) quando a hipericina está conjugada com MNTs-FF, sendo essa eficácia observada em ambas as fases, porém com melhor resultado para a fase hexagonal. Como mecanismo, foi proposto que a organização induzida pelas estruturas peptídicas e a disponibilidade de um ambiente hidrofóbico na interface de Hyp/peptídeo são fundamentais para incrementar a geração de ROS. Para os conjugados MNTs-FF com ftalocianinas de zinco, foram analisadas as propriedades morfológicas e estruturais. Com a variação dos grupos protetores dos derivados do glicerol presentes nas regiões periféricas das ZnPcs, a morfologia tubular usualmente observada em MNTs-FF muda drasticamente e passa a ser caracterizada por hastes micrométricas. Analisando sua superfície em estudos de alta resolução por AFM, foi perceptível a formação de camadas de fotossensibilizadores e um incremento substancial de rugosidade. Mesmo com a mudança na morfologia do material, a simetria cristalográfica P61, tradicionalmente encontrada em MNTs-FF não-conjugados, é mantida. Ensaios de toxicidade foram realizados em células tumorais mamárias (MCF-7), revelando que a morte celular é maior quando as ZnPcs estão conjugadas com MNTs-FF. Estudos de citometria identificaram que a principal via de morte celular é necrose, com eficiência de cerca 80% para os conjugados MNTs-FF/ZnPc. Esses achados mostram que essa conjugação aumenta a eficiência na geração de ROS dos fotossensibilizadores (Fs) utilizados nesse trabalho, indicando potencial aplicação desses materiais na terapia fotodinâmica. / It was studied the conjugation of L,L-diphenylalanine micro/nanotubes (MNTs-FF) with two types of fluorophore: hypericin (Hyp) and zinc phthalocyanines (ZnPc), order application in photodynamic therapy. It was made investigations on conjugates containing hypericin organized into different crystalline symmetries, a hexagonal phase (P61) and an orthorhombic phase (P22121). The results obtained here are evidence for higher efficiency in the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) when hypericin appears conjugated to MNTs-FF. This improvement is observed for MNT-FFs organized into both phases; however, efficiency is still higher for self-assemblies exhibiting hexagonal symmetry. As a mechanism, it was proposed that organization induced by peptide structures and availability of a hydrophobic environment in the vicinities of Hyp/peptide interfaces are crucial for boosting the generation of ROS. In conjugates formed between MNTs-FF and ZcPcs, structural and morphological properties were analyzed in detail. It was found that, by varying glycerol moieties in the periphery of ZnPcs, the tubular morphology usually observed in MNTs-FF changes dramatically and is then characterized by micrometer-long sticks with faceted surfaces. High-resolution AFM imaging showed the formation of layers of photosensitizers and substantial increment on the surface roughness. In despite these drastic morphological and surface changes, the crystalline arrangement of peptides within the complexes remained into the hexagonal P61 phase usually found in bare MNTs-FF. Cytotoxocity assays performed on tumoral mammary cells (MCF-7) indicated that cell death upon light irradiation is higher when ZnpCs is conjugated to MNTs-FF. Cytometry assays identified that the main mechanism leading to cell death is necrosis, with effectiveness of about 80% for MNTs-FF/ZnPc. These findings show that this conjugation enhances efficiency in ROS generation by the photosinthesizers used in this work, indicating the potential of these materials for photodynamic therapy.

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No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Taise Maria dos Anjos Oliveira - 2016.pdf: 1420716 bytes, checksum: 75628b01c19c9db89c0e4ed2e9469284 (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-02-29 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / Photodynamic inactivation is a technique based on the synergistic combination of a photosensitizer, light and oxygen, resulting in the generation of reactive oxygen species, which are cytotoxic and cause cell death by apoptosis or necrosis. Bovine herpesvirus 1 is responsible for diseases of the respiratory and reproductive systems, it is estimated to occur an economic loss of a billion dollars a year, due to the action of the virus in the herd. In order to develop new alternatives and /or therapeutic approaches that are effective in viral clearance, we evaluated two photosensitizers, zinc phthalocyanine and aluminum phthalocyanine, the photoinactivation bovine herpesvirus 1. As a control we used irradiated virus without the presence of photosensitizer (light control) viruses incubated with photosensitizers without radiating (photosensitizer control) and viruses without any treatment. The light control showed that the use of light without the presence of photosensitizer does not have phototoxic effect on the virus; control showed that the photosensitizer zinc and aluminum phthalocyanines have no cytotoxicity in the absence of light. Both controls were compared to the virus that received no treatment. To better evaluate the irradiation time and the optimal concentration of the two photosensitizers, viral suspension aliquots containing 105.75 TCID50/mL were used, incubated with photosensitizers at concentrations of 5 and 10 μM and irradiated at 0, 15, 30, 45, 60, 75, and 90 minutes. After irradiation, the sample was added in permissive cell cultures virus, which was analyzed for the presence of cytopathic effect and the results were expressed as viral titers. The zinc phthalocyanine showed better efficiency in photoinactivation bovine herpesvirus 1, wherein the concentration of 10 μM with 30 minutes of irradiation was the most effective. The phthalocyanine aluminum inactivated virus completely after 60 minutes of irradiation, but there was no significant difference between concentrations. These results indicate that both phthalocyanines have a good applicability in photodynamic viral inactivation, but the zinc phthalocyanine has a better efficiency. / A inativação fotodinâmica é uma técnica baseada na combinação sinérgica de um fotossensibilizador, oxigênio e luz, que resulta na geração de espécies reativas do oxigênio, que são citotóxicas e causam a morte celular por apoptose ou necrose. O herpesvírus bovino 1 é responsável por enfermidades no sistema respiratório e reprodutivo, estima-se que ocorra uma perda econômica de um bilhões de dólares por ano, devido à ação do vírus no rebanho. Visando novas alternativas e/ou abordagens terapêuticas que sejam eficazes na eliminação viral, avaliamos dois fotossensibilizadores, ftalocianina zinco e ftalocianina alumínio, na fotoinativação do herpesvírus bovino 1. Como controle foram utilizados vírus irradiado sem a presença do fotossensibilizador (controle da luz), vírus incubado com os fotossensibilizadores sem irradiar (controle do fotossensibilizador) e vírus sem nenhum tratamento. O controle da luz mostrou que o emprego da luz sem a presença do fotossensibilizador não possui efeito fototóxico sobre o vírus, o controle do fotossensibilizador mostrou que as ftalocianinas zinco e alumínio não possuem citotoxidade na ausência da luz. Ambos os controles foram comparados ao vírus que não recebeu nenhum tratamento. Para avaliar o melhor tempo de irradiação e a melhor concentração dos dois fotossensibilizadores, foram utilizadas alíquotas de suspensão viral contendo 105,75 TCID50/mL, incubadas com os fotossensibilizadores nas concentrações de 5 e 10 μM e irradiadas nos tempos 0, 15, 30, 45, 60, 75 e 90 minutos. Após a irradiação a amostra foi adicionada em culturas de células permissíveis ao vírus, onde foi analisada a presença de efeito citopático e os resultados foram expressos em títulos virais. A ftalocianina zinco apresentou melhor eficiência na fotoinativação do herpesvírus bovino 1, sendo a concentração de 10 μM com 30 minutos de irradiação a mais eficaz. A ftalocianina alumínio inativou o vírus totalmente após 60 minutos de irradiação, mas não apresentou diferença significativa entre as concentrações. Estes resultados indicam que ambas ftalocianinas possuem uma boa aplicabilidade na inativação fotodinâmica viral, porém a ftalocianina zinco possui uma melhor eficiência.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:32:51Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2009-06-26Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T19:43:38Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 zanfolim_aa_dr_bauru.pdf: 2078904 bytes, checksum: 89fecc6406c0fe251fffb9f3101d20dd (MD5) / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / Neste trabalho foram preparados filmes finos de ftalocianinas de zinco (ZnPc) e de níquel (NiPc) através da técnica de evaporação térmica à vácuo (PVD - physical vapor deposition) em diversas espessuras e em escala nanométrica com o objetivo de determinar a arquitetura molecular destes filmes bem como suas propriedades ópticas e elétricas. Em última análise buscam-se gerar subsídios para as possíveis aplicações, especialmente dispositivos eletrônicos a base de semicondutores orgânicos e sensores de gás. A ZnPc e a NiPc em pó foram caracterizadas utilizando-se as técnicas de termogravimetria (TG), calorimetria exploratória diferencial (DSC) e os filmes PVD por espectroscopias de absorção no ultravioleta-visível (UV-vis), no infravermelho com transformada de Fourier (FTIR), espalhamento Raman, difração de raios-X, microscopias óptica e de força atômica (AFM) e caracterização elétrica cc (tensão x corrente). Os resultados mostraram que é possível a fabricação de filmes PVD de ZnPc e NiPc, uma vez que estas moléculas não são termicamente degradadas durante o processo de evaporação térmica a vácuo, e que o crescimento dos filmes pode ser controlado em escala nanométrica para ambos os materiais. Em termos estruturais, os filmes PVD de ZnPc e NiPc são cristalinos (forma α) e possuem as moléculas arranjado-se na forma de agregados e monômetros e ordenadas com o anel macrociclo inclinado em relação à superfície do substrato. Tais agregados podem ser vistos em escala nanométrica, porém, em escala micrométrica os filmes apresentam-se morfologicamente homogêneos. Em relação às propriedades ópticas e elétricas, observou-se que ambos os filmes PVD absorvem na região do visível com a ZnPc apresentando fotoluminescência quando irradiado com laser 785 nm. A condutividade elétrica é de 1,2x'10 POT. -10' S/m para a ZnPc e de 72x'10 POT... / In this work thin films of phthalocyanines of zinc (ZnPc) and nickel (NiPc) were fabricated through the vacuum thermal evaporation technique (PVD - physical vapor deposition) for different thicknesses at nanometric scale with the objective of determining the molecular architecture of these films as well as their optical and electrical properties. The final idea is to generate subsidies for applications of these films in electronic devices based on organic semiconductors and gas sensors. The PVD films were characterized using thermogravimetry (TG), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), ultraviolet-visible (UV-vis) and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) absorption spectroscopies, Raman scattering, X-ray diffraction, optical and atomic force (AFM) microscopies, and electrical characterization (tension x current dc). The results showed that the fabrication of ZnPc and NiPc films is possible since these molecules are not thermally degraded during the process of vacuum thermal evaporation and that the growth of the films can be controlled at nanometric scale for both materials. Structurally, the PVD films of ZnPc and NiPc possess the molecules organized with the macrocycle ring tilted in relation to the substrate surface. They are crystalline (α form) and possess molecular aggregates in the form of dimmers or higher order of aggregates and monomers. Such aggregates can be seen at nanometric scale, however, at micrometric scale the films are morphologically homogeneous. In relation to the optical and electrical properties, it was observed that boh PVD films absorb in the visible region with the ZnPc presenting photoluminescence when irradiated with the 785 nm laser line. The electric conductivity at 1,2x'10 POT. -10' S/m for ZnPc and 72x'10 POT. -10' S/m for NiPc. They also presented photoconductivity with the ZnPc more photoconductor than NiPc. Finally, after thermal treatment... (Complete abstract click electronic access below)

Fundação de Amparo a Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais / Recently, great attention has been focused on hydrogen as a clean and renewable potential energy vector. In the present study, a functional system designed for photocatalytic hydrogen evolution from water was developed and analyzed. Essays consisted of cylindrical borosilicate reactor with 750 mL suspension under nitrogen atmosphere, 100 mg L-1 of 0.5% m/m Pt-loaded TiO2 (P25, M02 or M19) using hexachloroplatinic acid as cocatalyst (Pt) precursor and aqueous solution of eléctron donor as sacrificial reagent (methanol, paracetamol or sodium lignosulfonate) at different concentrations. The pH of the suspension was adjusted using NaOH 0.1 mol L-1 or HCl 0.1 mol L-1 solutions previously prepared. The obtained system was maintaned under controlled temperature (20 ºC), stirring and irradiation by the use of 400 W high-pressure mercury lamp (HPL-N). The tests were carried out employing commercial P25 (Degussa-Evonick) to study the stability of the system; role of pH (0.5; 1.8; 2.8; 3.8; 4.8; 6.2; 8.3 e 11.5); influence of methanol concentration (0; 20; 35; 50; 65 e 80% v/v) and the use of alternative sacrificial reagents (paracetamol and sodium lignosulfonate). Lately, essays were conducted employing based-TiO2 catalysts available in LAFOT-CM (M02 e M19) and tests using composites of titanium dioxide associated with zinc phthalocyanine (TiO2/FtZn 2.5% m/m). The results showed that 8 hours of irradiation proved to be enough to evaluate hydrogen evolution satisfactorily; optimum pH lies around point of zero charge (pHpzc) of the employed catalyst, reaching at these conditions 55.36 mmol h-1 g-1; the best methanol concentration studied was 50% v/v achieving 131.41 mmol h-1 g-1 and the use of alternative sacrificial reagents resulted in hydrogen evolution at rate of 9.76 mmol h-1 g-1 with paracetamol, whereas no hydrogen production was detected by the use of sodium lignosulfonate. Among based-TiO2 studied were found the following relationship of hydrogen evolution efficiency: P25 > M19 > M02. The association between zinc phthalocyanine dye and titanium dioxide proved to be favorable to facilitate hydrogen evolution resulting in improvement of 61%, 170% e 34% respectively to P25/ZnPc 2,5% m/m, M02/ZnPc 2,5% m/m e ZnPc/FtZn 2,5% m/m comparared with pure catalyst due to the ZnPc capacity to inject electrons in the conduction band of semiconductors when electronically excited. / Recentemente, a possibilidade de produzir hidrogênio utilizando luz tem atraído o interesse da comunidade científica. No presente estudo, um sistema projetado para a produção fotocatalítica de hidrogênio a partir de água foi testado e analisado. Foi utilizado um reator cilíndrico de borossilicato contendo 750 mL da suspensão constituída por 100 mg L-1 do catalisador baseado no TiO2 (P25, M02 ou M19) carregado com 0,5% m/m de Pt como cocatalisador (utilizando ácido hexacloroplatínico hexahidratado como precursor) e reagente de sacrifício (metanol, paracetamol ou lignossulfonato de sódio) em diferentes concentrações, com pH do meio reacional ajustado e sob atmosfera inerte de gás nitrogênio. O sistema obtido foi mantido sob temperatura controlada (20 ºC), agitação e irradiação utilizando uma lâmpada de vapor de mercúrio de alta pressão (HPL-N) de 400 W. A partir do uso do catalisador comercial P25 (Degussa-Evonick), os ensaios foram conduzidos de maneira a estudar a estabilidade do sistema; o papel do pH (0,5; 1,8; 2,8; 3,8; 4,8; 6,2; 8,3 e 11,5); a influência do uso de diferentes percentuais em volume de metanol (0; 20; 35; 50; 65 e 80%) e o uso de reagentes de sacrifício alternativos (PCT e LSS). Posteriormente foram conduzidos ensaios utilizando os catalisadores baseados no TiO2 disponíveis no LAFOT-CM (M02 e M19) e ensaios empregando compósitos entre o dióxido de titânio e a ftalocianina de zinco (TiO2/FtZn 2,5% m/m). Por meio destes ensaios, constatou-se que 8 horas de irradiação mostra-se suficiente para a avaliação da evolução de hidrogênio; o pH ótimo encontra-se nas mediações do ponto de carga zero do catalisador utilizado, atingindo nessas condições 55,36 mmol h-1 g-1; a melhor concentração de metanol estudada foi 50% v/v (131,41 mmol h-1 g-1) e o uso de reagentes de sacrifício alternativos resultou na produção de hidrogênio a uma taxa de 9,76 mmol h-1 g-1 usando PCT, enquanto não foi observada atividade fotocatalítica usando o LSS. Dentre os catalisadores baseados no TiO2 estudados, obteve-se a seguinte relação de eficiência de produção de hidrogênio: P25 > M19 > M02. O uso de compósitos mostrou-se favorável para melhorar o processo fotocatalítico, com acréscimos de eficiência em relação aos catalisadores puros de 61%, 170% e 34% respectivamente, para P25/FtZn 2,5% m/m, M02/FtZn 2,5% m/m e M19/FtZn 2,5% m/m devido a capacidade que a FtZn possui de injetar elétrons na banda de condução dos semicondutores quando eletronicamente excitadas. / Mestre em Química

Core- and Valence Photoelectron Spectroscopy (PES), X-ray- and Ultraviolet-Visible Absorption Spectroscopy (XAS and UV-Vis), Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM) and Density Functional Theory (DFT) calculations are used to study the electronic and geometrical structure of a class of macro-cyclic molecules, Phthalocyanines (Pc), on surfaces. These molecules are widely studied due to their application in many different fields. Multilayer and monolayer coverages of Iron Phthalocyanine (FePc) and metal-free Phthalocyanine (H2Pc) deposited on different surfaces are investigated in order to get insight in the electronic and geometrical structure of the obtained overlayers, of crucial importance for the understanding of the film functionality. Sublimation of molecular thick films on Si(100) and on conducting glass results in films with molecules mainly oriented with their molecular plane orthogonal to the surface. Ex-situ deposited H2Pc films on conductive glass show different molecular orientation and morphology with respect to the vacuum sublimated films. We study the monolayer adsorption structure of FePc and H2Pc and compare our results with other Pc’s adsorbed on graphite. We find that the molecular unit cell and the superstructure is characteristic for each Pc adsorbed on graphite, even if the geometrical size of the compared molecules is the same. The PE- and XA- spectra of FePc on graphite are essentially identical for the mono- and multilayer preparations, evidencing weak intermolecular and molecular-substrate interactions of van der Waals nature. Furthermore, we characterize Pc’s on InSb (001)-c(8x2). The substrate In rows are observed to be the adsorption site for Pc’s. We find that the growth of the two-dimensional islands of FePc is prolonged in the [-110] direction, in contrast to ZnPc adsorbed on the same substrate at room temperature. We interpret this result as an indication that the adsorption is controlled by the substrate corrugation observed at 70 K.

This thesis deals with the device physics of organic solar cells. Organic photovoltaics (OPV) is a field of applied research which has been growing rapidly in the last decade leading to a current record value of power-conversion efficiency of 10 percent. One major reason for this boom is a potentially low-cost production of solar modules on flexible (polymer) substrate. Furthermore, new application are expected by flexible or semitransparent organic solar cells. That is why several OPV startup companies were launched in the last decade. Organic solar cells consist of hydrocarbon compounds, deposited as ultrathin layers (some tens of nm) on a substrate. Absorption of light leads to molecular excited states (excitons) which are strongly bound due to the weak interactions and low dielectric constant in a molecular solid. The excitons have to be split into positive and negative charges, which are subsequently collected at different electrodes. An effective dissociation of excitons is provided by a heterojunction of two molecules with different frontier orbital energies, such that the electron is transfered to the (electron) acceptor and the positive charge (hole) remains on the donor molecule. This junction can be realized by two distinct layers forming a planar heterojunction or by an intermixed film of donor and acceptor, resulting in a bulk heterojunction. Electrodes are attached to the absorber to collect the charges by providing an ohmic contact in the optimum case. This work focuses on the electrical processes in organic solar cells developing and employing a one-dimensional drift-diffusion model. The electrical model developed here is combined with an optical model and covers the diffusion of excitons, their separation, and the subsequent transport of charges. In contrast to inorganics, charge-carrier mobilities are low in the investigated materials and charge transport is strongly affected by energy barriers at the electrodes. The current-voltage characteristics (J-V curve) of a solar cell reflect the electrical processes in the device. Therefore, the J-V curve is selected as means of comparison between systematic series of simulation and experimental data. This mainly qualitative approach allows for an identification of dominating processes and provides microscopic explanations. One crucial issue, as already mentioned, is the contact between absorber layer and electrode. Energy barriers lead to a reduction of the power-conversion efficiency due to a decrease in the open-circuit voltage or the fill factor by S-shaped J-V curve (S-kink), which are often observed for organic solar cells. It is shown by a systematic study that the introduction of deliberate barriers for charge-carrier extraction and injection can cause such S-kinks. It is explained by simulated electrical-field profiles why also injection barriers lead to a reduction of the probability for charge-carrier extraction. A pile-up of charge carriers at an extraction barrier is confirmed by measurements of transient photocurrents. In flat heterojunction solar cells an additional reason for S-kinks is found in an imbalance of electron and hole mobilities. Due to the variety of reasons for S-kinks, methods and criteria for a distinction are proposed. These include J-V measurements at different temperatures and of samples with varied layer thicknesses. Most of the studies of this this work are based on experimental data of solar cells comprisiing the donor dye zinc phthalocyanine and the acceptor fullerene C60. It is observed that the open-circuit voltage of these devices depends on the mixing ratio of ZnPc:C60. A comparison of experimental and simulation data indicates that the reason is a changed donor-acceptor energy gap caused by a shift of the ionization potential of ZnPc. A spatial gradient in the mixing ratio of a bulk heterojunction is also investigated as a donor(acceptor)-rich mixture at the hole(electron)-collecting contact is supposed to assist charge extraction. This effect is not observed, but a reduction of charge-carrier losses at the “wrong” electrode which is seen at an increase in the open-circuit voltage. The most important intrinsic loss mechanism of a solar cell is bulk recombination which is treated at the example of ZnPc:C60 devices in the last part of this work. An examination of the dependence of the open-circuit voltage on illumination intensity shows that the dominating recombination mechanism shifts from trap-assisted to direct recombination for higher intensities. A variation of the absorption profile within the blend layer shows that the probability of charge-carrier extraction depends on the locus of charge-carrier generation. This results in a fill factor dependent on the absorption profile. The reason is an imbalance in charge-carrier mobilities which can be influenced by the mixing ratio. The work is completed by a simulation study of the influence of charge-carrier mobilities and different recombination processes on the J-V curve and an identification of a photoshunt dominating the experimental linear photocurrent-voltage characteristics in reverse bias. / Diese Dissertation beschäftigt sich mit der Physik organischer Solarzellen. Die organische Photovoltaik ist ein Forschungsgebiet, dem in den letzten zehn Jahren enorme Aufmerksamkeit zu Teil wurde. Der Grund liegt darin, dass diese neuartigen Solarzellen, deren aktueller Rekordwirkungsgrad bei 10 Prozent liegt, ein Potential für eine kostengünstige Produktion auf flexiblem (Polymer)substrat aufweisen und aufgrund ihrer Vielfältigkeit neue Anwendungsbereiche für die Photovoltaik erschließen. Organische Solarzellen bestehen aus ultradünnen (einige 10 nm) Schichten aus Kohlenwasserstoffverbindungen. Damit der photovoltaische Effekt genutzt werden kann, müssen die durch Licht angeregten Molekülzustände zu freien Ladungsträgern führen, wobei positive und negative Ladung an unterschiedlichen Kontakten extrahiert werden. Für eine effektive Trennung dieser stark gebundenden lokalisierten angeregten Zustände (Exzitonen) ist eine Grenzfläche zwischen Molekülen mit unterschiedlichen Energieniveaus der Grenzorbitale erforderlich, sodass ein Elektron auf einem Akzeptor- und eine positive Ladung auf einem Donatormolekül entstehen. Diese Grenzschicht kann als planarer Heteroübergang durch zwei getrennte Schichten oder als Volumen-Heteroübergang in einer Mischschicht realisiert werden. Die Absorberschichten werden durch Elektroden kontaktiert, wobei es für effiziente Solarzellen erforderlich ist, dass diese einen ohmschen Kontakt ausbilden, da ansonsten Verluste zu erwarten sind. Diese Arbeit behandelt im Besonderen die elektrischen Prozesse einer organischen Solarzelle. Dafür wird ein eindimensionales Drift-Diffusionsmodell entwickelt, das den Transport von Exzitonen, deren Trennung an einer Grenzfläche und die Ladungsträgerdynamik beschreibt. Abgesehen von den Exzitonen gilt als weitere Besonderheit einer organischen Solarzelle, dass sie aus amorphen, intrinsischen und sehr schlecht leitfähigen Absorberschichten besteht. Elektrische Effekte sind an der Strom-Spannungskennlinie (I-U ) sichtbar, die in dieser Arbeit als Hauptvergleichspunkt zwischen experimentellen Solarzellendaten und den Simulationsergebnissen dient. Durch einen weitgehend qualitativen Vergleich können dominierende Prozesse bestimmt und mikroskopische Erklärungen gefunden werden. Ein wichtiger Punkt ist der schon erwähnte Kontakt zwischen Absorberschicht und Elektrode. Dort auftretende Energiebarrieren führen zu einem Einbruch im Solarzellenwirkungsgrad, der sich durch eine Verringerung der Leerlaufspanung und/oder S-förmigen Kennlinien (S-Knick) bemerkbar macht. Anhand einer systematischen Studie der Grenzfläche Lochleiter/Donator wird gezeigt, dass Energiebarrieren sowohl für die Ladungsträgerextraktion als auch für die -injektion zu S-Knicken führen können. Insbesondere die Tatsache, dass Injektionsbarrieren sich auch negativ auf den Photostrom auswirken, wird anhand von simulierten Ladungsträger- und elektrischen Feldprofilen erklärt. Das Aufstauen von Ladungsträgern an Extraktionsbarrieren wird durch Messungen transienter Photoströme bestätigt. Da S-Knicke in organischen Solarzellen im Allgemeinen häufig beobachtet werden, werden weitere Methoden vorgeschlagen, die die Identifikation der Ursachen ermöglichen. Dazu zählen I-U Messungen in Abhängigkeit von Temperatur und Schichtdicken. Als eine weitere Ursache von S-Knicken werden unausgeglichene Ladungsträgerbeweglichkeiten in einer Solarzelle mit flachem Übergang identifiziert und von den Barrierefällen unterschieden. Weiterer Forschungsgegenstand dieser Arbeit sind Mischschichtsolarzellen aus dem Donator-Farbstoff Zink-Phthalozyanin ZnPc und dem Akzeptor Fulleren C60. Dort wird beobachtet, dass die Leerlaufspannung vom Mischverhältnis abhängt. Ein Vergleich von Experiment und Simulation zeigt, dass sich das Ionisationspotenzial von ZnPc und dadurch die effektive Energielücke des Mischsystems ändern. Zusätzlich zu homogenen Mischschichten werden Solarzellen untersucht, die einen Gradienten im Mischungsverhältnis aufweisen. Die Vermutung liegt nahe, dass ein hoher Donatorgehalt am Löcherkontakt und ein hoher Akzeptorgehalt nahe des Elektronenkontakts die Ladungsträgerextraktion begünstigen. Dieser Effekt ist in dem hier untersuchten System allerdings vergleichsweise irrelevant gegenüber der Tatsache, dass der Gradient das Abfließen bzw. die Rekombination von Ladungsträgern am “falschen” Kontakt reduziert und somit die Leerlaufspannung erhöht. Der wichtigste intrinsische Verlustmechanismus einer Solarzelle ist die Rekombination von Ladungsträgern. Diese wird im letzten Teil der Arbeit anhand der ZnPc:C60 Solarzelle behandelt. Messungen der Leerlaufspannung in Abhängigkeit von der Beleuchtungsintensität zeigen, dass sich der dominierende Rekombinationsprozess mit zunehmender Intensität von Störstellenrekombination zu direkter Rekombination von freien Ladungsträgern verschiebt. Eine gezielte Variation des Absorptionsprofils in der Absorberschicht zeigt, dass die Ladungsträgerextraktionswahrscheinlickeit vom Ort der Ladungsträgergeneration abhängt. Dieser Effekt wird hervorgerufen durch unausgeglichene Elektronen- und Löcherbeweglichkeiten und äußert sich im Füllfaktor. Weitere Simulationsergebnisse bezüglich des Einflusses von Ladungsträgerbeweglichkeiten und verschiedener Rekombinationsmechanismen auf die I-U Kennlinie und die experimentelle Identifikation eines Photoshunts, der den Photostrom in Rückwärtsrichtung unter Beleuchtung dominiert, runden die Arbeit ab.

This work is part of the inter-laboratory collaboration to study the stability of seven distinct sets of state-of-the-art organic photovoltaic (OPV) devices prepared by leading research laboratories. All devices have been shipped to and degraded at RISØ-DTU up to 1830 hours in accordance with established ISOS-3 protocols under defined illumination conditions. In this work, we apply the Incident Photon-to-Electron Conversion Efficiency (IPCE) and the in situ IPCE techniques to determine the relation between solar cell performance and solar cell stability. Different ageing conditions were considered: accelerated full sun simulation, low level indoor fluorescent lighting and dark storage. The devices were also monitored under conditions of ambient and inert (N2) atmospheres, which allows for the identification of the solar cell materials more susceptible to degradation by ambient air (oxygen and moisture). The different OPVs configurations permitted the study of the intrinsic stability of the devices depending on: two different ITO-replacement alternatives, two different hole extraction layers (PEDOT:PSS and MoO3), and two different P3HT-based polymers. The response of un-encapsulated devices to ambient atmosphere offered insight into the importance of moisture in solar cell performance. Our results demonstrate that the IPCE and the in situ IPCE techniques are valuable analytical methods to understand device degradation and solar cell lifetime. / Dieser Beitrag ist mit Zustimmung des Rechteinhabers aufgrund einer (DFG-geförderten) Allianz- bzw. Nationallizenz frei zugänglich.