Semiconductor nanostructures exhibit many remarkable electronic and optical properties. The key to designing and utilising semiconductor quantum structures is a physical understanding of the detailed excitation, transport and energy relaxation processes. Thus the nonequilibrium dynamics of semiconductor quantum structures have attracted extensive attention in recent years. Ultrafast spectroscopy has proven to be a versatile and powerful tool for investigating transient phenomena related to the relaxation and transport dynamics in semiconductors. In this thesis, we report investigations into the electronic and optical properties of various semiconductor quantum systems using a variety of ultrafast techniques, including up-conversion photoluminescence, pump-probe, photon echoes and four-wave mixing. The semiconductor quantum systems studied include ZnO/ZnMgO multiple quantum wells with oxygen ion implantation, InGaAs/GaAs self-assembled quantum dots with different doping, InGaAs/InP quantum wells with proton implantation, and silicon quantum dots. The spectra of these semiconductor nanostructures range from the ultraviolet region, through the visible, to the infrared. In the UV region we investigate excitons, biexcitons and oxygen implantation effects in ZnO/ZnMgO multi-quantum wells using four-wave mixing, pump-probe and photoluminescence techniques. Using time-resolved up-conversion photoluminescence, we investigate the relaxation dynamics and state filling effect in InGaAs self-assembled quantum dots with different doping, and the implantation effect in InGaAs/InP quantum wells. Finally, we study the optical properties of silicon quantum dots using time-resolved photoluminescence and photon echo spectroscopy on various time scales, ranging from microseconds to femtoseconds.

Les méthodes de croissance de couches minces dites « pulsées » présentent certaines spécificités, notamment la présence d'espèces très énergétiques venant se déposer à la surface du substrat. L'ablation laser (PLD) est à ce jour la technique pulsée la plus connue et permet de former des couches minces de composés complexes, et d'oxydes particulièrement. Mais la méthode atteint ses limites dans le cas de cibles de matériaux peu absorbants à la longueur d'onde laser comme les semi-conducteurs à large bande interdite. L'ablation par faisceau pulsé d'électrons (PED) est une technique de croissance encore peu connue et très similaire à la PLD. L'objectif de ce travail est de maîtriser les paramètres de la PED pour obtenir des couches minces présentant un intérêt pour des applications en microélectronique. Chaque étape du processus de dépôt a fait l'objet d'une étude et d'une comparaison avec la PLD. La modélisation de l'interaction électron-matière a permis d'obtenir l'évolution de la température de la cible soumise au bombardement par les électrons. Le plasma d'ablation a été étudié en détail grâce à la spectroscopie d'émission optique et à l'imagerie rapide afin notamment de connaître l'énergie des espèces du plasma. Le matériau choisi pour ce travail est l'oxyde de zinc (ZnO). Des films minces de ZnO ont été formés par PED et l'étude montre que ces couches sont de bonne composition chimique et que la qualité cristalline des couches est équivalente aux films formés par PLD nanoseconde. Ces couches sont transparentes à plus de 80% dans le visible et assez conductrices pour imaginer des applications en tant qu'oxyde transparent conducteurs par exemple.

Cette dernière décennie a montré que les cellules solaires à colorants étaient une technologie photovoltaïque économiquement viable. Malgré les nombreuses études réalisées dans ce domaine, force est de constater que les rendements de photoconversion n'ont toujours pas dépassé 12% avec ce type de cellule. Les travaux réalisés au cours de cette thèse s'inscrivent dans une optique d'optimisation des cellules solaires à colorants. Pour y parvenir, une approche joignant la théorie et l'expérience a été développée. Par des calculs basés sur la Théorie de la Fonctionnelle de la Densité (DFT), une nouvelle famille de colorants, caractérisée par la présence d'un groupement pyridinium, a été étudiée afin d'en choisir les membres les plus aptes à générer un photocourant. En combinant une approche moléculaire et périodique, les calculs ont permis de comprendre différents mécanismes intervenant dans le fonctionnement de la cellule solaire conduisant à une optimisation théorique de certains constituants de la cellule comme la composition de l'électrolyte ou le colorant. Parallèlement aux calculs, une méthodologie de construction et de caractérisation des cellules basée sur l'utilisation de ZnO comme semiconducteur a été mise en place au sein du laboratoire. La synthèse de ces nouveaux colorants a aussi été réalisée au cours de ce travail de doctorat. La conception et la caractérisation expérimentales de cellules utilisant ces colorants a permis de valider le protocole théorique développé ouvrant la voie à une optimisation ab initio des cellules solaires à colorants.

A large variety of material systems for light emission and detection were studied: from very small band gap semiconductors for infra-red (IR) detectors to wide band gap semiconductors for ultra violet (UV) emission as well as CdSe/ZnSe QDs for single photon emitters and rare earth doped oxides for laser fabrication. The growth and characterization aspects were tackled. This work will focus on the relations between the growth procedures and the optical properties. The information that can be gained from optical studies as well as the limitations of those ones will be explained in each case. Following that, a number of projects will be presented. The main one will be based on how to circumvent the problems linked with p-type doping of wide bandgap semiconductors. This project, based on field effect hole injection in wide band-gap semiconductors addresses the major challenge of fabricating efficient deep UV emitters.

<p>A systematic study of trends in band gap and lattice energies for bare zinc oxide nanoparticles were performed by means of quantum chemical density functional theory (DFT) calculations and density of states (DOS) calculations. The geometry of the optimized structures and the appearance of their frontier orbitals were also studied. The particles studied varied in sizes from (ZnO)₆ up to (ZnO)₁₉₂.The functionalization of bare and hydroxylated ZnO surfaces with MPTMS was studied with emphasis on the adsorption energies for adsorption to different surfaces and the effects on the band gap for such adsorptions.</p>

<p>ZnO nanoparticles in the size range 2.5–7 nm have been synthesised by a wet chemical method where ZnO particles were grown in basic zinc acetate solution. The optical band gap increases when the size of the particles decreases. An empirical relation between the optical band gap given from absorption measurements, and particle size given from XRD measurements has been developed and compared to other similar relations found in the literature.</p><p>   Time resolved UV-Vis spectroscopy has been used to follow the growth of particles in situ in solution. The data show that the growth mechanism not can be described by a simple Oswald ripening approach and nor by an exclusive agglomeration of smaller clusters into larger particles. The growth mechanism is more likely a combination of the proposed reaction themes. The data also reveal that particle formation do not demand a heating step for formation of the commonly assumed initial cluster Zn₄O(CH₃COO)₆.</p><p>   Steady state fluorescence has been studied as a function of particle size during growth in solution. These measurements confirm what is found in the literature in that the visible fluorescence is shifted to longer wavelengths and loses in intensity as the particles grow. Some picosecond spectroscopy has also been done where the UV fluorescence has been investigated. From these measurements it is apparent that the lifetime of the fluorescence increases with particle size.</p><p>    The phonon spectrum of ZnO has been studied with Raman spectroscopy for a number of different particle sizes. From these measurements it is clear that there is a strong quenching of the phonons due to confinement for the small particles, and the only clearly observed vibration is one at 436 cm^-1 which intensity strongly increases with particle size.   </p>

Nanostructured materials especially, one-dimensional (1D) nanostructures have unique physical, chemical, mechanical properties and are the building blocks for a range of nanoscale devices. The procedure employed for the synthesis of nanostructures involves the use of sophisticated instruments or rigorous chemical reactions. The motivation of our work is to develop a strategy that is simple, cost effective and applicable to a host of oxide materials. Nanostructures of various oxides have been grown from the metal as the source material. 1D ZnO nanostructures have been obtained by simply heating Zn metal in ambient air at temperatures below 600 °C. The nanostructures grow on the surface of the source material and the morphology is controlled by monitoring the curvature of the source material. This technique has an added advantage that neither any catalyst nor any gas flow is required. Tetrapods of ZnO are obtained when Zn is heated above 700 °C in ambient air. It has been shown that the morphology and the aspect ratio (length-to-diameter ratio) of the tetrapods depend on the temperature and the temperature gradient. Photoluminescence studies reveal good optical quality ZnO nanostructures. The technique employed to synthesize 1D ZnO nanostructures has been checked for other oxides. The temperature required for the synthesis of Ga2O3 nanostructures is 1200 °C. Many researchers have shown that Ga2O3 emits in the blue-green region. A red emission is required to get the impression of white light which has been seen for nitrogen doped Ga2O3. As the temperature is very high and Ga is heated in ambient air, unintentional nitrogen doping of 1D Ga2O3 nanostructures is obtained which is the reason for white light emission. The morphology of Ga2O3 nanostructures has been controlled by monitoring the curvature of the starting material as is the case of ZnO. Similar technique has also been employed for the synthesis of CuO nanostructures. The morphology is temperature dependent and 1D CuO nanostructures are obtained when the synthesis temperature is between 400 and 600 C. Possible growth mechanisms have been proposed for all these oxide materials. The entire thesis is based on the results discussed above. It has been organized as follows: Chapter 1 deals with the introduction to nanostructures, importance of 1D nanostructures, the specific applications of different morphologies, materials that are widely explored in the synthesis of nanostructures and different approaches to the synthesis of nanostructures. Growth mechanisms like VLS, VS and SLS are briefly discussed. A brief review on the basic physical properties, applications and different morphologies of ZnO, Ga2O3 and CuO is outlined with emphasis to the various synthesis techniques. Finally the aim and scope of the present work is discussed. Chapter 2 describes the experimental setup used for the synthesis and the basic principles of characterization techniques like x-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), high resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM), energy dispersive spectrum (EDS), electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS), photoluminescence (PL), Raman spectroscopy, x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), UV-Visible spectroscopy, Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). Chapter 3 deals with the synthesis of 1D ZnO nanostructures with different morphologies such as nanoneedles, nanorods, nanobelts from Zn powder/granule. The growth process is found to be different from the conventional VS mechanism. The advantage and the versatility of the method is emphasized. In this method, neither a catalyst nor any gas flow is required for the synthesis of oxide nanostructures. Depending upon the Zn powder or Zn granules as the starting material different nanostructures of ZnO have been synthesized. The as-synthesized materials are characterized by XRD, SEM, HRTEM, EDS, TGA and Raman spectroscopy and the results are discussed. Chapter 4 describes the controlled growth of ZnO tetrapods and the influence of temperature and temperature gradient on the growth process. Though there are several methods to synthesize ZnO tetrapods and it has been established that ZnO tetrapods can be synthesized by heating Zn in air, it is advantageous to grow tetrapods of different morphologies with different lengths. The large scale synthesis of ZnO tetrapods by heating Zn in air ambient is discussed in this chapter. The key parameters that control the diameter, length, and morphology of tetrapods are identified. It is shown that the morphology and dimensions of the tetrapods depend not only on the vaporization temperature but also on the temperature gradient of the furnace. The influence of vaporization temperature and growth temperature on the morphology of the tetrapods is discussed elaborately. Chapter 5 explains the one-step synthesis of nitrogen doped Ga2O3 nanostructures of different morphologies and the different growth mechanisms. The experimental method employed for the synthesis of nanostructures is simple and is different from the other reported methods. Neither any catalyst/substrate preparation nor any gas flow is required for the synthesis of Ga2O3 nanostructures. The synthesis involves the heating of molten Ga at high temperatures. Single crystalline monoclinic phase of nitrogen-doped Ga2O3 nanorods, nanobelts and nanoneedles are obtained by this method. The morphology is controlled by monitoring the curvature of the Ga droplet which is achieved by using different substrates. Possible growth processes of different morphology have been proposed. Chapter 6 includes some surprising results on the white light emission of Ga2O3 nanorods. High synthesis temperature generates a high vapor pressure suitable for the growth of Ga2O3 nanorods, creates oxygen vacancy and incorporates nitrogen from the ambient. The oxygen vacancy is responsible for the bluish-green emission, while nitrogen is responsible for the red emission. As a consequence, white light emission is observed from Ga2O3 nanorods when irradiated with UV light. The interesting point is that neither post-treatment of the nanorods nor size control is required for white light emission. Chapter 7 describes the synthesis of CuO nanostructures by heating Cu foil in air ambient. This is an attempt to check whether the synthesis technique employed for ZnO and Ga2O3 is applicable to other oxides. The as-synthesized CuO nanostructures are characterized by XRD, SEM, HRTEM, EDS, TGA, UV-visible, FTIR and the results are discussed. Chapter 8 gives the conclusions and the overall summary of the thesis.

Les propriétés spécifiques des milieux fluides supercritiques sont exploitées depuis denombreuses années dans les domaines de la séparation, de la chimie et des matériaux.Aujourd'hui, les activités de recherche se focalisent vers une meilleure compréhension et unmeilleur contrôle des processus thermodynamiques, physiques et chimiques mis en jeu, ce quinous a naturellement amené à développer la microfluidique supercritique. C'est dans cecontexte que s'inscrivent ces travaux de thèse ayant pour objet le développement et l'utilisationde l'outil microfluidique pour l'étude de la réactivité chimique et de la germination-croissance enmilieux fluides supercritiques.Notre premier objectif a concerné le développement de l'outil microfluidique supercritique etde microsystèmes résistants aux conditions de température et de pression. Quelquescaractéristiques physiques associées à ces dispositifs sont proposées de manière à observerclairement les avantages attendus du couplage de la microfluidique et des fluides supercritiques.Nous avons ensuite validé l'apport de la microfluidique supercritique sur la réactivité chimiqueet la chimie des matériaux via, d'une part, l'étude de l'oxydation hydrothermale du méthanol et,d'autre part, l'élaboration de nanocristaux de ZnO. Les propriétés de photoluminescence de cesnanocristaux de ZnO ont été caractérisées; nous avons montré que l'outil microfluidiquesupercritique permet de synthétiser des nanocristaux de ZnO avec une luminescenceexcitonique.

L'objectif de ce travail est d'élaborer des méthodes peu chères pour produire des matériaux semi-conducteurs pouvant entrer dans la fabrication de cellules solaires de type "eta" (extremely thin absorber). Ces cellules sont constituées d'une couche extrêmement fine d'un absorbeur inorganique dont la bande interdite est situé entre 1.1 et 1.8 eV placée entre deux nanostructures transparentes l'une de type n et l'autre de type p et dont les bandes interdites doivent être supérieurs à 3.3 eV. Une couche compacte et des nanofils de ZnO ont été préparés en mode galvanostatique. Les dimensions des nanofils ont été contrôles à l'aide de la couche compacte et de la densité du courant appliqué. La photosensibilisation des nanofils par des couches uniformes de CdS, CdSe et CdTe prÈparÈe par la méthode SILAR (Successive Ionic Layer Adsorption and Reaction) a été étudiée. Les propriétés de ces couches ont été améliorées par recuit et traitement chimique. En ce qui concerne les fines coquilles de CdTe deux autres méthodes de sensibilisation ont été également étudiées : la CSS (Close Space Sublimation) et les QDs (Quantum Dots). La première méthode conduit à un faible recouvrement alors que la seconde produit un matériau mal défini optiquement. Les hétérostructures formées sur les nanofils ont été complétées par une couche de CuSCN, un semi-conducteur de type p, préparée par trois méthodes différentes. L'influence de la morphologie de ces couches sur les propriétés des cellules eta a été étudiée. Les films préparés par électrodéposition et SILAR sont plus rugueux que ceux obtenus par imprégnation et leur conductivité est moins bonne. Les hétérostructures (avec CdS et CdSe comme absorbeurs) ont été testées dans une cellule photoélectrochimique et les rendements obtenus (jusque 2%) montrent une amélioration certaine des propriétés de ces matériaux préparée par SILAR-modifiée ainsi que des interfaces ZnO/absorbeur. La qualité des matériaux obtenus par SILAR montre qu'aujourd'hui on peut s'attendre à une Renaissance de cette technique.

ZnO nanoparticles in the size range 2.5–7 nm have been synthesised by a wet chemical method where ZnO particles were grown in basic zinc acetate solution. The optical band gap increases when the size of the particles decreases. An empirical relation between the optical band gap given from absorption measurements, and particle size given from XRD measurements has been developed and compared to other similar relations found in the literature.    Time resolved UV-Vis spectroscopy has been used to follow the growth of particles in situ in solution. The data show that the growth mechanism not can be described by a simple Oswald ripening approach and nor by an exclusive agglomeration of smaller clusters into larger particles. The growth mechanism is more likely a combination of the proposed reaction themes. The data also reveal that particle formation do not demand a heating step for formation of the commonly assumed initial cluster Zn4O(CH3COO)6.    Steady state fluorescence has been studied as a function of particle size during growth in solution. These measurements confirm what is found in the literature in that the visible fluorescence is shifted to longer wavelengths and loses in intensity as the particles grow. Some picosecond spectroscopy has also been done where the UV fluorescence has been investigated. From these measurements it is apparent that the lifetime of the fluorescence increases with particle size.     The phonon spectrum of ZnO has been studied with Raman spectroscopy for a number of different particle sizes. From these measurements it is clear that there is a strong quenching of the phonons due to confinement for the small particles, and the only clearly observed vibration is one at 436 cm-1 which intensity strongly increases with particle size.