Amphiphilic polymers are a class of polymers that self-assemble into different types of microstructure, depending on the solvent environment and external stimuli. Self assembly structures can exist in many different forms, such as spherical micelles, rod-like micelles, bi-layers, vesicles, bi-continuous structure etc. Most biological systems are basically comprised of many of these organised structures arranged in an intelligent manner, which impart functions and life to the system. We have adopted the atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) technique to synthesize various types of block copolymer systems that self-assemble into different microstructure when subject to an external stimuli, such as pH or temperature. The systems that we have studied are: (1) pH responsive fullerene (C60) containing poly(methacrylic acid) (PMAA-b-C60); (2) pH and temperature responsive fullerene containing poly[2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate] (C₆₀-b-PDMAEMA); (3) other responsive water-soluble fullerene systems. By varying temperature, pH and salt concentration, different types microstructure can be produced. In the presence of inorganic salts, fractal patterns at nano- to microscopic dimension were observed for negatively charged PMAA-b-C60, while such structure was not observed for positively charged PDMAEMA-b-C60. We demonstrated that negatively charged fullerene containing polymeric systems can serve as excellent nano-templates for the controlled growth of inorganic crystals at the nano- to micrometer length scale and the possible mechanism was proposed. The physical properties and the characteristics of their self-assembly properties will be discussed, and their implications to chemical and biomedical applications will be highlighted. / Singapore-MIT Alliance (SMA)

The present work is dealing with the first synthesis and characterisation of amphiphilic diblock copolymers bearing b-dicarbonyl (acetoacetoxy) chelating residues. Polymers were obtained by Group Transfer Polymerisation (GTP)/acetoacetylation and controlled radical polymerisation techniques (RAFT).<br><br>Different micellar morphologies of poly(n-butyl methacrylate)-block-poly[2-(acetoacetoxy)ethyl methacrylate] (pBuMA-b-pAEMA) were observed in cyclohexane as a selective solvent. Depending on the block length ratio, either spherical, elliptical, or cylindrical micelles were formed. The density of the polymer chains at the core/corona interface is considerably higher as compared to any other strongly segregating system reported in the literature. It is demonstrated that there are H-bond interactions existing between acetoacetoxy groups, which increase the incompatibility between block segments. In addition, such interactions lead to the formation of secondary structures (such as b-sheets or globular structures) and larger superstructures in the micrometer length scale.<br><br>Block copolymers were also used to solubilise metal ion salts of different geometries and oxidation states in organic media, in which are otherwise insoluble. Sterically stabilised colloidal hybrid materials are formed, i.e. monodisperse micelles having the metal ion salt incorporated in their core upon complexation with the ligating pAEMA block, whereas pBuMA forms the solvating corona responsible for stabilisation in solution. Systematic studies show that the aggregation behaviour is dependent on different factors, such as the tautomeric form of the beta-dicarbonyl ligand (keto/enol) as well as the nature and amount of added metal ion salt.

Typische assoziative Verdicker für wässrige Systeme basieren auf linearen, doppelt hydrophob endmodifizierten Poly(ethylenglykolen) (PEGs). Diese Polymere aggregieren aufgrund ihrer Struktur in wässriger Lösung und bilden ein Netzwerk aus verbrückten Polymer-Mizellen. Dabei kann ein Polymer-Molekül maximal zwei Mizellen miteinander verbinden. Bisher ist unklar, wie die Anzahl der Endgruppen eines verzweigten, mehrfach hydrophob endmodifizierten hydrophilen Polymers die Struktur und Dynamik solcher Netzwerke beeinflusst. Die Synthese verzweigter Polymere auf PEG-Basis erfolgt mittels lebender ionischer Polymerisation und ist experimentell aufwändig. Das Einführen hydrophober Endgruppen erfordert zusätzliche Synthese-Schritte. In dieser Arbeit wurden hydrophile Sternpolymere mit hydrophoben Endgruppen in einem Schritt hergestellt. Dazu wurde die Technik der radikalischen Polymerisation unter Kettenübertragung durch reversible Addition und anschließende Fragmentierung (reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer, RAFT) genutzt. Die Synthese der Sternpolymere erfolgte von einem multifunktionalen Kern, der die R-Gruppe der RAFT-Kettenüberträger (chain transfer agents, CTAs) bildete. Die dazu benötigten CTAs wurden so konzipiert, dass mit ihrer Hilfe sowohl die Anzahl der Arme des Sternpolymers (von 2 bis 4), als auch die Länge der hydrophoben Endgruppe (C4, C12, C18) variiert werden konnte. Der große Vorteil der RAFT-Polymerisation ist, dass sie viele polare Monomere für die Synthese der hydrophilen Arme des Sternpolymers toleriert. In dieser Arbeit wurden als Modell-Monomere Oligo(ethylenglykol)methylether-acrylat (OEGA) und N,N-Dimethylacrylamid (DMA) eingesetzt. Beide Monomere bilden nicht-ionische hydrophile Polymere. Poly(OEGA) ist ein Kammpolymer, das auf PEG basiert. Poly(DMA) besitzt dagegen eine deutlich kompaktere Struktur. Die erhaltenen amphiphilen Sternpolymere wurden umfassend molekular charakterisiert. Die Molmassen wurden mit verschiedenen GPC-Systemen bestimmt und der Grad der Endgruppenfunktionalisierung wurde mittels UV/Vis- und 1H-NMR-Spektroskopie überprüft. Die Polymerisation von OEGA zeigt mit den CTAs einige Charakteristika der Polymerisation mit reversibler Deaktivierung (RDRP, auch „kontrollierte radikalische Polymerisation“), wird aber durch Kettenübertragung zum Monomer bzw. Polymer gestört. Diese Nebenreaktion ist auf die Struktur des Monomers als Oligoether zurückzuführen. Bei allen untersuchten Polymerisationen von DMA mit den multifunktionalen CTAs steigt die Molmasse linear mit dem Umsatz. Die erhaltenen Polymere zeigen durchweg monomodale und enge Molmassenverteilungen (PDI ≤ 1,2). Die Molmassen lassen sich in einem weiten Bereich von 25 kg/mol bis 150 kg/mol einstellen und die Endgruppen der Polymere bleiben zu 90 % erhalten. Während die Polymerisation von DMA sowohl mit den di- als auch den trifunktionalen CTAs innerhalb von 3 h zu quantitativen Umsätzen verläuft, wird der quantitative Umsatz des Monomers bei der Polymerisation mit tetrafunktionalen CTAs erst nach 4 h erreicht. Diese Verzögerung ist auf eine Retardierung in der Anfangsphase der Polymerisation zurückzuführen, die sich aus der besonderen Struktur der tetrafunktionalen CTAs erklärt. Auf dem System zur Polymerisation von DMA aufbauend ließen sich Gradienten-Block-Copolymere in Eintopfreaktionen herstellen. Dazu wurde nach Erreichen des quantitativen Umsatzes von DMA ein zweites Monomer zur Reaktionsmischung gegeben. Mit Ethylacrylat (EtA) wurden so lineare amphiphile symmetrische Triblock-Copolymere erhalten. Dabei wurde die Länge des hydrophoben Blocks durch unterschiedliche Mengen an EtA variiert. Mit N,N-Diethylacrylamid (DEA) wurden lineare symmetrische Triblock-Copolymere sowie 3-Arm Stern-Diblock-Copolymere hergestellt, die über einen thermisch schaltbaren zweiten Block verfügen. Bei diesen Polymeren lässt sich die Länge des hydrophoben Teils in situ durch Veränderung der Temperatur variieren. Das Verhalten der amphiphilen Sternpolymere in wässriger Lösung und in Mikroemulsion wurde im Rahmen einer Kooperation an der TU Berlin mit Hilfe von Kleinwinkel-Neutronenstreuung (SANS), dynamischer Lichtstreuung (DLS) und Rheologie untersucht. Die Polymere wirken durch Assoziation der hydrophoben Endgruppen als effektive Verdicker sowohl allein in wässriger Lösung als auch in Mikroemulsion. Die Struktur des gebildeten Netzwerks hängt dabei von der Konzentration des Polymers in der Lösung und der Länge der Endgruppe (Hydrophobie) ab. Die dynamischen Eigenschaften der Lösungen werden außerdem durch die Anzahl der Arme der Polymere bestimmt. / Typically, associative thickeners for aqueous system consist of linear, hydrophobically α,ω-end-capped poly(ethylene glycols) (PEGs). Owing to their structure, these polymers aggregate in aqueous solution, forming a network of bridged micelles. Thus, one polymer molecule can link not more than two micelles. Until now it is unclear whether the structure and dynamics of such networks are influenced by the number of end groups of a branched multiply hydrophobically end-capped hydrophilic polymers. Branched PEG-based polymers are synthesized using the laborious and limited techniques of living ionic polymerization. Introducing hydrophobic end groups demands a multiple-step process. This work presents the one-step synthesis of hydrophilic star polymers with hydrophobic end groups, using reversible addition fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization. This radical polymerization method is easy to use and tolerates a large number of polar monomers for the synthesis of the hydrophilic arms of the star polymers. The arms of the polymer were grown from a multifunctional core that formed the R-group of the chain transfer agents (CTAs). The CTAs where tailored to be able to vary the number of arms of the star polymers from 2 to 4 and to vary the length (and therefore the hydrophobicity) of the end groups (C4, C12, C18). Two different polar monomers where used as model monomers: Oligo(ethylene glycol)methyl ether acrylate (OEGA) and N,N-Dimethylacrylamide (DMA). Both monomers yield non-ionic hydrophilic polymers. While poly(OEGA) is a comb polymer based on PEG, poly(DMA) exhibits a more compact structure. The amphiphilic star polymers were characterized extensively. The molar masses were determined using GPC in various solvents and the degree of end functionalisation was monitored using 1H NMR and UV/Vis spectroscopy. The polymerization of OEGA shows some of the expected characteristics of reversible deactivation radical polymerization (RDRP). However, chain transfer to monomer and polymer is a prominent side reaction, limiting the use of this monomer for the fabrication of well-defined material. This reaction can be attributed to the structure of the monomer being an oligoether. For all examined polymerizations of DMA with the multifunctional CTAs the molar mass increased linearly with conversion. The molar mass distributions were monomodal and narrow (PDI ≤ 1.2). Expected values were reached for molar masses from 25 to 150 kg/mol and the end group functionality was about 90 % in all cases. While the polymerization of DMA using di- and trifunctional CTAs proceeded to quantitative conversion within 3 h, an initial retardation period of about 60 min was observed for the polymerization using tetrafunctional CTAs. This retardation was attributed to the peculiar molecular structure of these CTAs. Owing to the well-controlled features of the polymerization of DMA using the multifunctional CTAs, this system was used to obtain tapered block copolymers in a one-pot process. These structures were achieved by adding a second monomer to the reaction mixture after the quantitative conversion of DMA. Using ethyl acrylate (EtA), linear amphiphilic symmetrical triblock copolymers were synthesized. The length of the hydrophobic block was tailored by the addition of varying amounts of EtA. With N,N-Diethylacrylamide as a second monomer, linear symmetric triblock copolymers as well as 3-arm star diblock copolymers were obtained that contain a thermosensitve block. Altering the temperature of aqueous solutions of these polymers varies the length of the hydrophobic block in situ. At the TU Berlin, the behavior of the polymers was studied in aqueous solution as well as in microemulsion. The solutions were characterized by small angle neutron scattering (SANS), dynamic light scattering (DLS) and rheology. The end groups of the polymers aggregate, making the polymers efficient thickeners both in aqueous solution and in microemulsion. The structure of the formed network depends on the concentration of the polymer in solution and on the length of the end group. The dynamic properties of the solutions are governed additionally by the number of arms.

Mémoire numérisé par la Division de la gestion de documents et des archives de l'Université de Montréal

In this study, we have synthesized two families of new carbohydrate-based amphiphilic derivatives: a series of alkyl glucoside ethers varying in terms of chain length and position on the sugar, and a series of glucosteroids varying in terms of alkyl spacer and, for the disutibstuted systems, in terms of alkyl side chain length. By the means of analytical methods, such as NMR spectroscopy, mass spectroscopy and elementary analysis, the structure of all the compounds was carefully established, as well as their purity. Their liquid crystalline behaviors were studied by the means of transmission light microscopy and differential scanning calorimetry. The two families of compounds which have been studied illustrate how much the behavior can be essentially related to polar interactions (H-bonding), therefore to the sugar moiety, for the ether series, or to hydrophobic interactions (lipid-lipid) in the glucosteroid series. In this latter series, preference for either steroid-stroid or steroid alkyl packing appears as an insight in understanding the behavior of complex lipids, showing potentially more than one conformational structure with important consequences on the supramolecular level, therefore to their potential biological role. This could be regarded as "lipid denaturation" by analogy to the protein denaturation. Also, when we see that compounds like the glycosteroids having an long chain ester -CAG, BbGL-I, are found to exist in Nature, and how much glycolipid-cholesterol interactions were recently shown to be critical in some biological processes, it is hoped that our observations can provide a new vision angle for the study of complex lipids and glycolipids. As a start to develop new probes targeting the "lipid raft" microdomain in membranes, we also explored a sequence towards carbohydrate laurdan hybrids. Further development of this strategy and evaluation of the biological properties is programmed within new collaborative projects.

Biological degradable polymers on a basis of renewable raw materials, such as polysaccharides, represent promising alternatives to synthetic polymers used as flocculant or stabilizing agents. Polysaccharides derived from potato starch and chitosan have been modified with benzyl- and the first one with additionally cationic hydroxypropyl-trimethylammonium groups of different degrees of substitution (DS). The aim of this work was to characterize the solution properties of these novel amphiphilic polysaccharides concerning the impact of their DS on charge density, particle size, dynamic surface tension and viscosity behaviour. The work is further focused on investigations on flocculation properties of these amphiphilic polyelectrolytes in dispersions of kaolin and silica to identify the interplay between charge density and hydrophobicity. Flocculation efficiency has been evaluated via joint analysis of charge density measurements (using polyelectrolyte titration), turbidity and TOC measurements, as well as dynamic surface tension measurements applying the drop profile analysis. Particle sizes and particle size distributions have been determined by dynamic light scattering and laser diffraction methods. In addition, these amphiphilic starch derivatives have been used to remove substances which impact negatively the paper production process when using recycled paper, so called stickies. Model suspensions have been studied using a multitude of different measurement techniques with the aim to predict a “sticky potential” and to reduce containing dissolved and colloidal substances such as micro stickies. The surface activity and viscometric behaviour have been studied of solely cationic and moderately and highly substituted, amphiphilic polysaccharides in salt-free and 0.05 M NaCl aqueous solution. For the first time dynamic surface tension measurement results have been correlated with particle sizes and apparent charge density. Rheological investigation of large concentration ranges (0.01–20 g/L) was used to discuss Huggins plots and typical polyelectrolyte behaviour for all polysaccharide derivatives could be found. Overlap concentration and, in dilute aqueous solution, intrinsic viscosity could be determined. For polysaccharide solution in dilute regime semi-empirical equations of Rao and Wolf have been applied, making it possible to get insights to polyelectrolyte conformation in dependence on the DS of both substituents. It is shown that for intrinsic viscosity a change of the impact of both substituents takes place when having derivatives with enhanced hydrophobicity. Data evaluation via the ratio of both DS values had been successfully utilized and thus, the applied method has been identified as being a promising tool to compare a multitude of starch derivatives with substituents of different polarity in various degrees of substitution to get tendencies regarding overall hydrophobicity. Moderate hydrophobic substitution was found to lead to a decrease of the efficient flocculant dose and to an increase of the flocculation window width. Amphiphilic starch derivatives with high DS of hydrophobic moieties showing strong hydrophobic association are effective only at significantly higher doses, but in a broader concentration range compared to cationic starch of the same DS. Joint analysis of adsorption isotherms and flocculation test data has revealed, that the surface coverage required to induce phase separation ranges between 10 and 25 % and is minimal for amphiphilic starch derivatives. This gave the evidence of the complex mechanism of flocculation via combination of electrostatic “charge patch” interactions and bridging. Concerning sticky reduction experiments by systematically studying the interactions between the novel amphiphilic starch derivatives and the model suspension it turned out, that dynamic surface tension is a very suitable property to characterize the surface active compounds in the model suspension giving additional information about the sticky potential of waste water, e.g. white water, being a new and sensitive method to describe the parameter “hydrophobicity”. Moderate cationic and hydrophobic starch derivatives have been proved to be the most effective ones for sticky removal.

Στην παρούσα διατριβή διερευνήθηκαν οι παράμετροι που ελέγχουν τη δέσμευση/αποδέσμευση ιόντων Cu2+ ή/και κατιοντικών επιφανειοδραστικών ενώσεων, όπως το βρωμιούχο δεκαεξυλοτριμεθυλαμμώνιο (CTAB) ή το βρωμιούχο δεκαεξυλοτριμεθυλo φοσφώνιο (PC16) από αντίθετα φορτισμένους πολυηλεκτρολύτες. Mελετήθηκαν διαφορετικές πολυμερικές μήτρες που αποτελούνται είτε από εμπορικά διαθέσιμα πολυμερή είτε συντεθήκαν για αυτό το σκοπό, έτσι ώστε να γίνει κατανοητή η επίδραση της χημικής δομής του πολυμερούς στη ταχύτητα δέσμευσης και αποδέσμευσης των δραστικών συστατικών. Καθώς τα ιόντα αυτά έχουν βιοστατική δράση, απώτερος πρακτικός στόχος της διερεύνησης είναι η πιθανή εφαρμογή τέτοιων υβριδικών πολυμερικών υλικών σε υφαλοχώματα που θα εμποδίζουν την απόθεση θαλάσσιων βιοαποθέσεων και θα χαρακτηρίζονται από ιδιότητες «αυτοκαθαρισμού». Έτσι, παρασκευάστηκαν στατιστικά ή συσταδικά αμφίφιλα συμπολυμερή, στα οποία το υδρόφιλο μονομερές μπορεί να δεσμεύσει τα ιόντα Cu2+ ή/και τις αντίθετα φορτισμένες επιφανειοδραστικές ενώσεις, όπως το στυρενοσουλφονικό νάτριο (SSNa), το μηλεϊνικό (ΜΑc) και το ακρυλικό οξύ (ΑΑ), ενώ το υδρόφοβο μονομερές, το οποίο εισάγεται για τον έλεγχο του ισοζυγίου υδροφιλικότητας/υδροφοβικότητας, είναι ο μεθακρυλικός μεθυλεστέρας (ΜΜΑ). Έτσι, χρησιμοποιήθηκαν ομοπολυμερές PSSNa αλλά και συμπολυμερή του MAc με το SSNa (P(SSNa50-co-MANa). Επιπλέον, για συγκριτικούς λόγους παρασκευάστηκε και το συμπολυμερές του ΜΑc με οξικό βινυλεστέρα, (P(VAc-co-MAc), ενώ χρησιμοποιήθηκε και το εναλλασσόμενο συμπολυμερές του μηλεϊνικού οξέος με αιθυλένιο, P(Eth-alt-MAc). Τα στατιστικά αμφίφιλα συμπολυμερή P(MMAx-co-SSNa), P(MMAx-co-AA) παρασκευάστηκαν με συμπολυμερισμό ελευθέρων ριζών, ενώ τα συσταδικά αμφίφιλα συμπολυμερή PMMAx-b-PSSNa και PSSNa-b-PMMAx παρασκευάστηκαν με πολυμερισμό ελευθέρων ριζών μέσω μεταφοράς ατόμου (ΑΤRP), χρησιμοποιώντας ως μακροεκκινητή είτε PMMA είτε PSSNa, αντίστοιχα. Τα μοριακά βάρη των συμπολυμερών χαρακτηρίστηκαν με SEC, ενώ η χημική τους δομή ταυτοποιήθηκε με 1H-NMR και FT-IR. Η εκατοστιαία σύσταση των συμπολυμερών σε μονάδες ΜΜΑ, x, κυμαίνεται στην περιοχή 10-65 mol%, όπως προσδιορίστηκε με 1H-NMR και TGA. Από τη συγκριτική μελέτη της αυτοοργάνωσης σε υδατικό διάλυμα των συσταδικών και των στατιστικών αμφίφιλων συμπολυμερών, P(MMAx-co-SSNa) και PSSNa-b-PMMAx) με ιχνηθέτηση με φθορίζοντες ιχνηθέτες διαπιστώθηκε πως τα συσταδικά συμπολυμερή εμφανίζουν σημαντικότερη τάση αυτοοργάνωσης, καθώς έχουν σημαντικά μικρότερη κρίσιμη συγκέντρωση μικκυλοποίησης και χαρακτηρίζονται από υψηλότερα επίπεδα υδροφοβικότητας. Η δέσμευση των ιόντων Cu2+ από τα παραπάνω συμπολυμερή σε αραιά υδατικά διαλύματα πραγματοποιήθηκε μέσω ιονoανταλλαγής χρησιμοποιώντας τη μετά νατρίου άλατος μορφή των συμπολυμερών ή μέσω εξουδετέρωσης της όξινης μορφής των συμπολυμερών με Cu(OH)2 και διερευνήθηκε με φυσικοχημικές μεθόδους, όπως η θολομετρία, η ιξωδομετρία τριχοειδούς και η φασματοσκοπία υπεριώδους-ορατού. Διαπιστώθηκε πως σε αραιά διαλύματα η δέσμευση των ιόντων Cu2+ οδηγεί σε συρρίκνωση των πολυμερικών αλυσίδων (ιξωδομετρία τριχοειδούς). Μάλιστα, σε αντίθεση με τα συμπολυμερή που περιέχουν SSNa, στα πολυμερή που περιέχουν καρβοξυλικές ομάδες, η συρρίκνωση είναι ιδιαίτερα ισχυρή και οδηγεί σε διαχωρισμό φάσεων καθώς η αναλογία των ιόντων Cu2+ προς τις καρβοξυλικές ομάδες προσεγγίζει τη στοιχειομετρία (θολομετρία), ως αποτέλεσμα του σχηματισμού συμπλόκων ένταξης μεταξύ των ιόντων Cu2+ και των καρβοξυλικών ομάδων (φασματοσκοπία υπεριώδους-ορατού). Μάλιστα, στην περίπτωση του P(Eth-alt-MAc), η φασματοσκοπία υπεριώδους-ορατού έδωσε σαφείς ενδείξεις για το σχηματισμό διπύρηνων συμπλόκων χαλκού με τις ομάδες καρβοξυλίου, τα οποία έχουν τη δυνατότητα να δράσουν ως σταυροδεσμοί δικτυώνοντας τις πολυμερικές αλυσίδες. Ως αποτέλεσμα, σε ημιαραιά διαλύματα σχηματίζονται υδροπηκτώματα. Ιδιαίτερο ενδιαφέρον έχει το γεγονός πως οι ιξωδοελαστικές ιδιότητες των σχηματιζόμενων υδροπηκωτμάτων εξαρτώνται σημαντικά από το χρόνο ανάμιξης των συμπολυμερών με τα ιόντα Cu2+. Στην επόμενη φάση διερευνήθηκε ο σχηματισμός μικτών συσσωματωμάτων (συμπλόκων) μεταξύ των πολυηλεκτρολυτών που περιέχουν SSNa και της αντίθετα φορτισμένης επιφανειοδραστικής ένωσης, CTAΒ. Στην περίπτωση του ομοπολυμερούς PSSNa ή των συσταδικών αμφίφιλων συμπολυμερών PSSNa-b-PMMAx παρατηρείται διαχωρισμός φάσεων, καθώς η αναλογία των αλληλεπιδρώντων ειδών προσεγγίζει τη στοιχειομετρία φορτίων. Αντίθετα, όταν χρησιμοποιούνται τα στατιστικά αμφίφιλα συμπολυμερή P(MMAx-co-SSNa) με x=33-47mol%, σχηματίζονται ιξώδη διαλύματα ή ασθενή πηκτώματα. Η ρεολογική διερεύνηση του φαινόμενου κατέδειξε πως εξαρτάται από τη συγκέντρωση του πολυμερούς, τη γραμμομοριακή αναλογία CTAΒ/SSNa και την ιοντική ισχύ του υδατικού διαλύματος. Πριν τις τελικές δοκιμές σε πραγματικές συνθήκες παρασκευάστηκαν αιδιάλυτα στο νερό υβριδικά υλικά πολυμερούς-χαλκού, ενδεχομένως παρουσία CTAΒ ή PC16 χρησιμοποιώντας όλες τις προηγούμενες οικογένειες συμπολυμερών αλλά και εμπορικά διαθέσιμα πολυμερή αντίστοιχης δομής. Χρησιμοποιώντας κατάλληλο εκλεκτικό αντιδραστήριο (bathocuproine) μελετήθηκε φωτομετρικά η αποδέσμευση των ιόντων Cu2+ σε υδατικό διάλυμα NaCl 1 M. Έτσι, διευκρινίστηκε η επίδραση διαφόρων παραγόντων στο ρυθμό αποδέσμευσης των ιόντων Cu2+, όπως η ύπαρξη υδρόφοβων μονομερών, το είδος και το ποσοστό αυτών, η αρχιτεκτονική (στατιστική ή συσταδική) των συμπολυμερών, η εισαγωγή και το είδος της επιφανειοδραστικής ένωσης, ο τρόπος εισαγωγής και το είδος της αλληλεπίδρασης με τα ιόντα Cu2+. Στο τελευταίο στάδιο, διερευνήθηκε η συμβατότητά/αναμιξιμότητα των παρασκευασθέντων βιοστατικών υλικών με τυπικές πολυμερικές μήτρες που μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν σε υφαλοχρώματα. Στις περιπτώσεις που διαπιστώθηκε ικανοποιητική συμβατότητα/αναμιξιμότητα (συστήματα PSSNa/CTAB, PSSNa/PC16, P(SSNa50-co-MANa)/CuPC16, P(VAc-co-MANa)/Cu) και ήταν εφικτό, παρασκευάστηκαν τα αντίστοιχα υφαλοχρώματα. Η συμπεριφορά αυτών των υφαλοχρωμάτων διερευνήθηκε εργαστηριακά με ηλεκτρονική μικροσκοπία σάρωσης (SEM), όσον αφορά τις μορφολογικές μεταβολές της επιφάνειας και τις μεταβολές του πάχους του χρώματος σε επιταχυνόμενες συνθήκες αποδέσμευσης βιοστατικού (υδατικό διάλυμα 5M NaCl). Επίσης, μελετάται και η συμπεριφορά τους σε πραγματικές συνθήκες με τη βοήθεια ειδικής διάταξης σε ελεγχόμενο θαλάσσιο χώρο. / At this thesis, the parameters that influence the interaction and the release of copper ions and/or of cationic surfactants as hexadecyltrimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB) or hexadecyltrimethyl phosphonium bromide (PC16) from opposite charged polyelectrolytes, are studied. Different polymeric matrixes that are consisted either by commercially available polymers or by polymers that were synthesized for this purpose, were used in order, the influence of the polymer structure to the release rate of copper ions, to be identified. As these ions can behave as biocides, the practical purpose of this study is the possible application of these polymers to self-polishing antifouling paints. Random or block amphiphilic copolymers, whose hydrophilic monomer can interact with copper ions and/or the surfactants, such as styrene sulfonate (SSNa), maleic acid (MAc) and acrylic acid (AA), while the hydrophobic one, which is introduced for the hydrophilicity/hydrophobicity control, such as methyl methacrylate (MMA), were prepared. In addition, for comparison, the copolymer of maleic acid with vinyl acetate (VAc), (P(VAc-co-MAc)) was prepared. The alternative copolymer of maleic acid with ethylene was also used. The random copolymers P(MMAx-co-SSNa), P(MMAx-co-AA) were synthesized by free radical polymerization while the block copolymers PMMAx-b-PSSNa and PSSNa-b-PMMAx were synthesized through atom transfer polymerization (ATRP), using either PMMA or PSSNa as macroinitiator. The molecular weights of the copolymers were determined by SEC while their structure was identified by 1H-NMR and FT-IR. The copolymer composition in MMA untis is between 10-65 mol% as it was determined by 1H-NMR and TGA. The ability of self-assembling of random and block copolymers (P(MMAx-co-SSNa) και PSSNa-b-PMMAx) in aqueous solution was studied by pyrene fluorescence probing. The block copolymers was found to present self-assembling properties as they have lower critical micellization concentration. The binding of Cu2+ by the above mentioned polymers in dilute solutions was achieved through ion-exchange procedure using the sodium salt form of the copolymers or through neutralization of the acid form of the polymers using Cu(OH)2. Tholometry, viscometry and UV-Vis spectrometry were used to study this binding. The interaction of Cu2+ with the polymers leads to the shrinkage of the polymer chains. To the copolymers that contain carboxylic groups this shrinkage is more intense and leads to macroscopic phase separation, as the ratio of Cu2+ to the carboxylic groups is near the stoichiometry, as a consequence of complexes formation. The UV-Vis study of P(Eth-alt- MAc) denoted the formation of binuclear complexes between the Cu2+ and the carboxylic groups. These complexes can behave as crosslinks of the polymer chains. As a result, in semi-dilute solutions, gels are formed. Interestingly, the viscoelastic properties of these gels are dependent on the time elapsed from the mixture of the Cu2+ with the polymer. The interaction of polyelectrolytes that contain SSNa units, with opposite charged surfactant CTAΒ was studied. The interaction of homopolymer PSSNa or of the blocks copolymers PSSNa-b-PMMAx with CTAB leads to phase separation as the ratio of these compounds is near the stoichiometry. On the contrast, the interaction of CTAB with random copolymers P(MMAx-co- SSNa) where x=33-47mol%, leads to the formation of very viscous solutions or weak gels. By the study of the rheological properties of these systems, the influence of the polymer concentration, the molar ratio CTAΒ/SSNa and the ionic strength was found. All the above mentioned polymers where used for the preparation of hybrid materials that contain Cu2+. CTAΒ ή PC16 were also introduced to some of them in order to take a water insoluble material. The final purpose of this thesis was to control the release of Cu+2 ions from the prepared hybrid materials in aqueous NaCl 1M solution. The Cu+2 -release studies were performed photometrically using a selective dye (bathocuproine). As a result, the influence of many parameters such as the presence of hydrophobic monomers, their type and their content, the architecture of the copolymers (random or blocks), the introduction and the type of surfactants, the way of introduction of copper ions to the polymers and the type of their interaction was studied. The compatibility of all these materials with matrixes which are used in the antifouling paints was studied. In case that this compatibility was satisfying, antifouling paints using these polymeric materials (PSSNa/CTAB, PSSNa/PC16, P(SSNa50-co-MANa)/CuPC16, P(VAc-co-MANa)/Cu) were prepared. The morphology of the surface of these paints and the changes to their thickness was studied by SEM after staying in aqueous solution of NaCl 5M. Their behavior to real conditions (sea) is being studied.

La nanocatalyse à base de métaux de transition constitue un domaine prometteur pour lequel l'efficacité accrue, le caractère de chimie verte et le recyclage sont activement recherchés. Dans cet esprit, cette thèse a été dédiée à la synthèse, la caractérisation et les applications catalytiques de nouveaux nanomatériaux à base de métaux de transition. D'une part, en catalyse homogène colloïdale, des nanoparticules de métaux de transition stabilisées par des ligands amphiphiles ont procuré d'excellentes performances catalytiques en terme d'activité, stabilité et recyclabilité pour la réduction du nitro-4-phénol, le couplage de Suzuki-Miyaura, le transfert d'hydrogéné et la cyclo-addition entre un alcyne et un azoture dans l'eau. D'autre part, en catalyse hétérogène, le design, la synthèse et les applications catalytiques de nano-catalyseurs basés sur les supports de type graphène ou architectures moléculaires organiques ont également été conduits. Leurs excellentes propriétés catalytiques ont été démontrées pour la réduction du nitro-4-phénol, le couplage de Sonogashira, la cyclo-addition des alcynes avec les azotures et l'hydrolyse d'ammonia-borane avec génération d'hydrogène dans l'eau dans les conditions ambiantes. / Transition metal nanocatalysis is a promising area, where increased efficiency, greenness and reusability are actively sought. In this spirit, the thesis has been devoted to the synthesis, characterization and catalytic applications of new transition metal nanomaterials. Amphiphilic ligand stabilized transition metal nanoparticles catalysts have provided excellent catalytic performances in terms of activity, stability and recyclability in the 4-nitrophenol reduction, Suzuki-Miyaura coupling, transfer hydrogenation and alkyne-azide cycloaddition reactions with low amounts of metal loadings. Moreover, an efficient amphiphilic "click" CuI catalyst was also designed for part-per-million levels of alkyne-azide cycloaddition reaction in water. The design, synthesis and catalytic application of heterogeneous nanocatalysts based on graphene and metal organic framework supports have also been carried out, and their excellent catalytic properties in 4-nitrophenol reduction, Sonogashira coupling, alkyne-azide cycloaddition and hydrolysis of ammonia-borane for hydrogen generation in water under ambient conditions have been disclosed.

Esse trabalho apresenta resultados de modificações estruturais, caracterizações e aplicações de derivados de quitosana como carreadores de fármacos. Derivados anfifílicos de quitosana, contendo grupos hidrofílicos e grupos hidrofóbicos, foram caracterizados por técnicas de espectroscopia de ressonância magnética nuclear (RMN1H), espectroscopia na região do infravermelho (IV), espectroscopia na região do UV-Vis, técnicas termoanalíticas (termogravimetria (TGA), termogravimetria derivada (DTG), análise térmica diferencial (DTA) e calorimetria exploratória diferencial (DSC)), fluorescência no estado estacionário, espalhamento dinâmico de luz (DLS) e microscopia eletrônica de transmissão (MET). Os resultados de caracterização mostraram que as sínteses propostas foram realizadas com sucesso. A determinação da concentração de agregação crítica (CAC) e os estudos de DLS e MET confirmam que os derivados se auto-organizam em solução aquosa formando agregados com diâmetros variando entre 230 a 500 nm. Esses valores, associados aos potenciais zeta obtidos (+14,1 mV a +44,8 mV), demonstram que os agregados são estáveis em solução, característica fundamental para aplicação no transporte de fármacos. A capacidade de encapsulamento do fármaco quercetina por esses derivados foi avaliada por estudos de incorporação utilizando a espectroscopia UV-Vis. Os resultados obtidos demonstraram que o comportamento dos derivados depende de parâmetros como o grau de hidrofilicidade e grupo hidrofílico, grau de hidrofobicidade e pH do meio de encapsulamento, possibilitando controlar a quantidade de fármaco contida nos carreadores. A atividade biológica dos agregados formados pelos derivados de quitosana foi testada em células de adenocarcinoma de mama (MCF-7) e os resultados indicaram baixa toxicidade dos carreadores, além de potencialização do efeito terapêutico do fármaco. Estudos de microscopia confocal de varredura a laser evidenciaram que agregados marcados com proteína verde fluorescente com afinidade por quitosana (CAP-sfGFP) foram internalizados pelas células MCF-7. Resultados de hemocompatibilidade indicaram que os polímeros apresentam baixa destruição de glóbulos vermelhos do sangue e liberação de hemoglobina. Portanto, esses derivados possuem características adequadas para aplicação no transporte e liberação controlada de fármacos. / This thesis presents results of structural modifications, characterizations and applications of chitosan derivatives as drug carriers. Amphiphilic derivatives of chitosan containing hydrophilic and hydrophobic groups were characterized by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (RMN1H), infrared spectroscopy (IV), uv-vis spectroscopy, thermoanalytical techniques (thermogravimetry (TGA), derivative thermogravimetry (DTG), differential thermal analysis (DTA) and differential exploratory calorimetry (DSC)), fluorescence, dynamic light scattering (DLS) and transmission electron microscopy (MET). The characterization results showed that the proposed syntheses were successfully performed. The critical aggregation concentration (CAC), DLS and MET studies confirmed that the derivatives self-assembled in aqueous solution forming aggregates with diameters ranging from 230 to 500 nm. These values, associated with zeta potentials (+14.1 mV to +44.8 mV), demonstrate that the aggregates were stable in solution. The ability to encapsulate quercetin by these derivatives was assessed by incorporation studies using UV-Vis spectroscopy. The results showed that the behavior of the derivatives depends on parameters such as the degree of hydrophilicity and hydrophilic groups, degree of hydrophobicity and pH of the encapsulation medium. The biological activity of the aggregates formed by the chitosan derivatives was tested in breast cancer cells (MCF-7) and the results indicated low toxicity of the carriers, in addition to improving the therapeutic effect of the drug. Confocal laser scanning microscopy studies showed that aggregates stained with chitosan-affinity protein (CAP-sfGFP) were internalized by MCF-7 cells. Hemolysis assays showed good hemocompatibility of chitosan derivatives. Therefore, the derivatives have suitable characteristics for application as drug delivery systems.

L'objectif de cette thèse, la production et la caractérisation de nanovéhicules de morphologies différentes propres au traitement et au diagnostic par radio-isotopes, a conduit à une meilleure compréhension de la façon dont ces véhicules se forment. Les résultats ont permis de concevoir des méthodes de préparation novatrices qui permettent d'obtenir des échantillons de qualité supérieure à ce qui est actuellement l'état de l'art. Un nouveau procédé pour la préparation d'échantillons pour les essais de flexion de microscopie à force atomique a été développé. Cela a permis de mesurer le module d'élasticité de nanofils préparés avec des mélanges copolymère séquencé/homopolymère de composition variable. Enfin, les nanoparticules de morphologies sphérique et allongée ont été comparées dans des études in vivo réalisées avec des souris saines. Les résultats montrent que leur temps de circulation et leur biodistribution peuvent être modulés par leur taille et leur morphologie. / This thesis provides an overview of the formation, characterization and testing of micelles of different morphology for biological applications. One major aspect of this thesis is the understanding of the processes which lead to the formation of block copolymer micelles through the emulsion evaporation method. The results obtained made it possible to develop an innovative micelle formation technique which provides samples which are of superior quality to what the current state of the art. A new method has been developed for the preparation of samples for three point bending tests experiments performed by atomic force microscopy. This has made it possible to determine the elastic modulus of elongated micelles formed with various blends of homopolymers and copolymers. Finally, the behavior of spherical and elongated micelles was compared in vivo in healthy mice. The results have shown that the micelle size and morphology influences their biodistribution and circulation time.