A periodic structure consists of spatially repeating unit cells. From man-made multi-span bridges to naturally occurring atomic lattices, periodic structures are ubiquitous. The periodicity can be exploited to generate frequency bands within which elastic wave propagation is impeded. A limitation to the linear periodic structure is that the filtering properties depend only on the structural design and periodicity which implies that the dispersion characteristics are fixed unless the overall structure or the periodicity is altered. The current research focuses on wave propagation in nonlinear periodic structures to explore tunability in filtering properties such as bandgaps, cut-off frequencies and response directionality. The first part of the research documents amplitude-dependent dispersion properties of weakly nonlinear periodic media through a general perturbation approach. The perturbation approach allows closed-form estimation of the effects of weak nonlinearities on wave propagation. Variation in bandstructure and bandgaps lead to tunable filtering and directional behavior. The latter is due to anisotropy in nonlinear interaction that generates low response regions, or "dead zones," within the structure.The general perturbation approach developed has also been applied to evaluate dispersion in a complex nonlinear periodic structure which is discretized using Finite Elements. The second part of the research focuses on wave dispersion in strongly nonlinear periodic structures which includes pre-compressed granular media as an example. Plane wave dispersion is studied through the harmonic balance method and it is shown that the cut-off frequencies and bandgaps vary significantly with wave amplitude. Acoustic wave beaming phenomenon is also observed in pre-compressed two-dimensional hexagonally packed granular media. Numerical simulations of wave propagation in finite lattices also demonstrated amplitude-dependent bandstructures and directional behavior so far observed.

This thesis describes an electrically thin surface used for electromagnetic applications in the microwave regime. The surface is free-standing and its primary purpose is to modify the phase distribution, or the phase and amplitude distribution of electromagnetic fields propagating through it: it is called phase shifting surface (PSS) in the first case, and phase and amplitude shifting surface (PASS) in the second case. For practical applications, the surface typically comprises three or four layers of metallic patterns spaced by dielectric layers. The patterns of the metallic layers are designed to locally alter the phase (and amplitude in the case of the PASS) of an incoming wave to a prescribed set of desired values for the outgoing wave. The PSS/PASS takes advantage of the reactive coupling by closely spacing of the metallic layers, which results in a larger phase shift range while keeping the structure significantly thin. The PSS concept is used to design components such as gratings and lens antennas which are presented in this document. The components are designed for an operating frequency of 30 GHz. The PSS phase grating gives high diffraction efficiency, even higher than a dielectric phase grating. Several types of lens antennas are also presented, which show comparable performance to that of a conventional dielectric plano-hyperbolic lens antenna with similar parameters. The PASS concept is used in a beam shaping application in which a flat-topped beam antenna is designed. This work demonstrates the potential for realising thin, lightweight and low-cost antennas at Ka band, in particular for substituting higher-gain antenna technologies such as conventional dielectric shaped lens antennas.

[pt] O crescimento da demanda por serviços de telecomunicações em terra firme também pode ser encontrado em ambientes marítimos por usuários a bordo de embarcações, sejam elas civis ou militares. Nestes ambientes, um fenômeno conhecido como duto de evaporação influencia a propagação eletromagnética na troposfera, proporcionando a comunicação ponto-a-ponto em distâncias além do horizonte rádio. Este trabalho utiliza a técnica de traçado de raios para analisar o comportamento da onda eletromagnética nestes meios. Foi elaborado um algoritmo capaz de traçar raios e determinar amplitudes e fases do campo elétrico em meios inomogêneos bidimensionais dado um mapa de refratividade modificada M. A partir destes mapas, o algoritmo calcula os gradientes verticais de M, que podem variar ao longo do percurso, e traça os raios, a partir da antena transmissora. Como aplicação, além de cenários com dutos de evaporação, foram utilizados mapas de M estimados com base em dados meteorológicos fornecidos por radiossondas lançadas no litoral brasileiro. Os resultados obtidos foram comparados aos fornecidos pelo software Advanced Refractive Effects Prediction System (AREPS), baseado na solução numérica de equação parabólica. Este trabalho também apresenta resultados estatísticos de dutos de evaporação no litoral brasileiro, a partir de dados meteorológicos fornecidos por boias oceanográficas do Programa Nacional de Boias (PNBOIA). Para tal, é utilizado, com pequenas alterações, o algoritmo de Paulus-Jeske, que estima a altura de dutos de evaporação. / [en] The demand growth for land-based telecommunications services can also be found in maritime environments by users on board ships, whether civilian or military. In these environments, a phenomenon known as the evaporation duct influences electromagnetic propagation in the troposphere, providing point-to-point communication at distances beyond the radio horizon. This work uses the raytracing technique to analyze the behavior of electromagnetic waves in these media. An algorithm capable of tracing rays and determining electric field amplitudes and phases in two-dimensional inhomogeneous media was developed, given a map of modified refractivity M. From these maps, the algorithm calculates the vertical gradients of M, which can vary along the path, and traces rays from the transmitting antenna. As an application, in addition to scenarios with evaporation ducts, M maps were estimated based on meteorological data provided by radiosondes launched in the Brazilian coast. The results obtained were compared with those provided by the Advanced Refractive Effects Prediction System (AREPS) software, based on the numerical solution of parabolic equation. This work also presents statistical results of evaporation ducts in the Brazilian coast, based on meteorological data provided by oceanographic buoys of Programa Nacional de Boias (PNBOIA). For this, the Paulus-Jeske algorithm, which estimates the height of the evaporation ducts, is used with small changes.

[pt] A indústria de óleo e gás utiliza a sísmica para investigar a distribuição de tipos de rocha (facies) em subsuperfície. Por outro lado, apesar de seu corriqueiro uso em geociências, medidas sísmicas costumam ser ruidosas, e a inversão do dado sísmico para a distribuição de facies é um problema mal posto. Por esta razão, diversos autores estudam esta inversão sob o ponto de vista probabilístico, para ao menos estimar as incertezas da solução do problema inverso. O objetivo da presente dissertação é desenvolver método quantitativo para estimar a probabilidade de reservatório com hidrocarboneto, dado um traço sísmico de reflexão, integrando modelagem sísmica direta, e conhecimento geológico a priori. Utiliza-se, um dos métodos mais recentes para resolver o problema inverso: Modelo de Markov Oculto com Efeito Convolucional (mais especificamente, a Aproximação por Projeção de (1)). É demonstrado que o método pode ser reformulado em termos do Modelo de Markov Oculto (MMO) ordinário. A teoria de sísmica de AVA é apresentada, e usada conjuntamente com MMO com Efeito Convolucional para resolver a inversão de sísmica para facies. A técnica de inversão é avaliada usando-se medidas difundidas em Aprendizado de Máquina, em um conjunto de experimentos variados e realistas. Apresenta-se uma técnica para medir a capacidade do algoritmo em estimar valores confiáveis de probabilidade. Pelos testes realizados a aproximação por projeção apresenta distorções de probabilidade inferiores a 5 por cento, tornando-a uma técnica útil para a indústria de óleo e gás. / [en] Oil and Gas Industry uses seismic data in order to unravel the distribution of rock types (facies) in the subsurface. But, despite its widespread use, seismic data is noisy and the inversion from seismic data to the underlying rock distribution is an ill-posed problem. For this reason, many authors have studied the topic in a probabilistic formulation, in order to provide uncertainty estimations about the solution of the inversion problem. The objective of the present thesis is to develop a quantitative method to estimate the probability of hydrocarbon bearing reservoir, given a seismic reflection profile, and, to integrate geological prior knowledge with geophysical forward modelling. One of the newest methods for facies inversion is used: Convolved Hidden Markov Model (more specifically the Projection Approximation from (1)). It is demonstrated how Convolved HMM can be reformulated as an ordinary Hidden Markov Model problem (which models geological prior knowledge). Seismic AVA theory is introduced, and used with Convolved HMM theory to solve the seismic to facies problem. The performance of the inversion technique is measured with common machine learning scores, in a broad set of realistic experiments. The technique capability of estimating reliable probabilities is quantified, and it is shown to present distortions smaller than 5 percent. As a conclusion, the studied Projection Approximation is applicable for risk management in Oil and Gas applications, which integrates geological and geophysical knowledge.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-17T14:13:20Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 CarlosNA.pdf: 2422732 bytes, checksum: f5d47defbd8e5b492fe5d2975c8286ee (MD5) Previous issue date: 2006-12-28 / Innumerable studies have focused been reported on the sleep spindles (SS), Sharp Vertex Waves (SVW) and REM, NREM Sleep as indicators interpreting EEG patterns in children. However, Frequency and Amplitud Gradient (FAG) is rarely cited sleep parameter in children,that occurs during NREM Sleep. It was first described by Slater and Torres, in 1979, but has not been routinely evaluated in EEG reports. The aim of this study was to assess the absence of SS, SVW and FAG, as an indication of neurological compromise in children. The sample consisted of 1014 EEGs of children referred to the Clinical Neurophysiology Laboratory, Hospital Universit?rio de Bras?lia (HUB), from January 1997 to March 2003, with ages ranging from 3 months to 12 years old, obtained in spontaneous sleep or induced by choral hydrate. The study was transversal and analytical, in which, visual analysis of EEG traces was perfumed individually and independently by two electroencephalographers without prior knowledge of the EEG study or neurological findings. After EEG selection, the investigators analyzed the medical reports in order to define and correlate neurological pattern was classified according to the presence or absence of neurological compromise, as Normal Neurological Pattern (NNP), and Altered Neurological Pattern (ANP) respectively. From the visual analysis of the EEG(s), it was possible to characterize 6 parameters: 1- FAG present (64,1%); 2- FAG absent (35,9%); 3 - normal SS (87,9%); 4 - altered SS s (12,1%); 5 - normal SVW s (95,7%); 6 - altered SVW s (4,3%). The prevalence of well-formed FAG is found in the 3 months to 5 years age group in the children with NNF. FAG was totally absent from the age of 10 years. When comparing the three sleep graphielements, it was observed that SVW and SS were predominant in children with NNF. However, FAG absent was more prevalent in the ANF than in altered SS an SVW. The statistical analysis showed that there is a strong association of FAG absent, with isolated alteration, in ANF patients, in that the prevalence ratio was 6,60. The association becomes stronger when FAG absent + altered SS(s) is considered (RP= 6,68). Chi-square test, corrected by Yates technique, showed a highly significant relation for FAG &#961;= 0,00000001, for error X of 5%, or else the 95% confidence interval (&#961;<0,05). Thus, the FAG absent were more expressive in ANF patient than altered SS(s) and SVW(s). The association becomes stronger in order to establish a prognostic relation, when the FAG is combined with the SS. The results os this study allow us to affirm that the FAG, when absent at ages ranging from 3 months to 5 years , is an indication of neurological compromise. FAG is an age-dependent EEG parameter and incorporated systematically, in the interpretation criteria of the EEG of children s sleep, not only in the maturational point of view, but also neurological disturbances with encephalic compromise / In?meras pesquisas t?m focalizado periodicamente os fusos do sono (FS), as ondas agudas do v?rtex (OAV), o complexo K e o padr?o do sono REM e NREM como indicadores de avalia??o eletrencefalogr?fica da inf?ncia. O GFA ? um padr?o EEG do sono de crian?as que ocorre durante o sono NREM, raramente citado na literatura, e que, descrito pela primeira vez por Slater e Torres, em 1979, e n?o devidamente valorizado na rotina dos laudos EEG. Nas montagens referenciais ? caracterizado por uma progressiva diminui??o de voltagem e aumento de freq??ncia na dire??o p?stero-anterior. O objetivo desta tese, foi analisar o gradiente de freq??ncia e amplitude, um padr?o EEG do sono de crian?as que ocorre durante o sono NREM; estudar os fusos do sono(FS), ondas agudas do v?rtex (OAV), como indicadores de comprometimento neurol?gico. A popula??o de estudo constitui-se de 1014 EEG de crian?as atendidas no Laborat?rio de Neurofisiologia Cl?nica do Hospital Universit?rio de Bras?lia (HUB) no per?odo de janeiro de 1997 a mar?o de 2003, nas faixas et?rias de 3 meses a 12 anos de idade, obtidos em sono espont?neo ou induzido por hidrato de cloral. O tipo de ensaio foi transversal-anal?tico, onde os EEG foram avaliados independentemente por 2 examinadores sem pr?vio conhecimento do padr?o neurol?gico e da indica??o cl?nica. Ap?s an?lise visual do EEG, foram pesquisados os prontu?rios m?dicos de todas as crian?as inclu?das no estudo, a fim de definir e associar o padr?o neurol?gico com os par?metros fusos do sono, ondas agudas do v?rtex, e GFA. O padr?o neurol?gico foi classificado segundo a presen?a ou aus?ncia de comprometimento neurol?gico em padr?o neurol?gico normal (PNN) e padr?o neurol?gico anormal (PNA), respectivamente. Com base na an?lise visual dos EEG, foi caracterizado o GFA em duas categorias: 1) GFA presente (64,1%); 2) GFA ausente ( 35,9%); 3) FS normais (87,9%); 4) FS alterados (12,1%); 5) OAV normais (95,7%); 6) OAV alteradas (4,3%). A melhor express?o do GFA presente com PNN ocorreu nas faixas et?rias de 3 meses a 5 anos. Observou-se tamb?m que o GFA torna-se ausente a partir dos 10 anos de idade em crian?as com PNN. Comparando os 3 grafoelementos do sono, as OAV e FS, foram respectivamente predominantes nas crian?as com PNN. A an?lise estat?stica mostrou que existe uma forte associa??o de aus?ncia de GFA, como altera??o isolada, nos pacientes com PNA, uma vez que a raz?o de preval?ncia foi de 6,60. A associa??o torna-se mais forte, quando se considerou GFA ausente + FS alterados (RP=11,9) e GFA ausente + FS alterados + OAV alterados (RP= 6,68). O teste do qui-quadrado, com corre??o pela t?cnica de Yates, mostrou uma rela??o altamente significativa, quando envolvido o GFA. Assim, o GFA ausente foi mais expressivo no PNA que os FS e as OAV alterados. A associa??o se torna ainda mais forte a ponto de estabelecer uma rela??o com valor progn?stico, quando o GFA se encontra-se combinado com o FS. Embora estatisticamente significante, n?o houve associa??o quando as OAV se encontra isoladas em compara??o aos demais par?metros. Os dados obtidos neste estudo permitem afirmar que, entre os grafo- elementos do sono, o GFA, quando ausente nas faixas et?rias de 3 meses a 5 anos, ? um indicador de comprometimento neurol?gico, sendo tal conclus?o mais expressiva do que os par?metros FS e OAV. O GFA ? um par?metro idade dependente e deve ser valorizado e incorporado, sistematicamente, aos crit?rios de interpreta??o do tra?ado EEG do sono de crian?as, tanto no ponto de vista da avalia??o maturacional como dos dist?rbios neurol?gicos com comprometimento encef?lico

Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-17T15:28:49Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 RobsonST_DISSERT.pdf: 350196 bytes, checksum: eaf6055553dc1f6cec39e0f754c20635 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011-12-02 / Coordena??o de Aperfei?oamento de Pessoal de N?vel Superior / Brain oscillation are not completely independent, but able to interact with each other through cross-frequency coupling (CFC) in at least four different ways: power-to-power, phase-to-phase, phase-to-frequency and phase-to-power. Recent evidence suggests that not only the rhythms per se, but also their interactions are involved in the execution of cognitive tasks, mainly those requiring selective attention, information flow and memory consolidation. It was recently proposed that fast gamma oscillations (60 150 Hz) convey spatial information from the medial entorhinal cortex to the CA1 region of the hippocampus by means of theta (4-12 Hz) phase coupling. Despite these findings, however, little is known about general characteristics of CFCs in several brain regions. In this work we recorded local field potentials using multielectrode arrays aimed at the CA1 region of the dorsal hippocampus for chronic recording. Cross-frequency coupling was evaluated by using comodulogram analysis, a CFC tool recently developted (Tort et al. 2008, Tort et al. 2010). All data analyses were performed using MATLAB (MathWorks Inc). Here we describe two functionally distinct oscillations within the fast gamma frequency range, both coupled to the theta rhythm during active exploration and REM sleep: an oscillation with peak activity at ~80 Hz, and a faster oscillation centered at ~140 Hz. The two oscillations are differentially modulated by the phase of theta depending on the CA1 layer; theta-80 Hz coupling is strongest at stratum lacunosum-moleculare, while theta-140 Hz coupling is strongest at stratum oriens-alveus. This laminar profile suggests that the ~80 Hz oscillation originates from entorhinal cortex inputs to deeper CA1 layers, while the ~140 Hz oscillation reflects CA1 activity in superficial layers. We further show that the ~140 Hz oscillation differs from sharp-wave associated ripple oscillations in several key characteristics. Our results demonstrate the existence of novel theta-associated high-frequency oscillations, and suggest a redefinition of fast gamma oscillations / As oscila??es cerebrais n?o s?o completamente independentes, mas capazes de interagir umas com as outras atrav?s de acoplamentos entre frequ?ncias (cross-frequency coupling, doravante CFC) em pelo menos quatro diferentes modalidades: amplitudeamplitude, fase-fase (coer?ncia), fase-frequ?ncia e fase-amplitude. Evid?ncias recentes sugerem que n?o somente os ritmos per se, mas tamb?m as intera??es entre eles est?o envolvidas na execu??o de tarefas cognitivas, principalmente aquelas que requerem aten??o seletiva, transmiss?o de informa??es e consolida??o de mem?rias. Estudos recentes prop?em que oscila??es gama alto (60 150 Hz) transferem informa??es espaciais do c?rtex entorrinal medial para a regi?o CA1 do hipocampo atrav?s do acoplamento com a fase de teta (4 12 Hz). Apesar destas descobertas, entretanto, pouco se sabe sobre as caracter?sticas gerais dos CFCs em diversas regi?es cerebrais. Neste trabalho, registramos potenciais de campo local usando matrizes de multieletrodos implantadas no hipocampo dorsal para registro neural cr?nico. O acoplamento fase-amplitude foi avaliado por meio da an?lise de comodulogramas, uma ferramenta de CFC desenvolvida recentemente (Tort et al. 2008, Tort et al. 2010). Todas as an?lises de dados foram realizadas em MATLAB (MathWorks Inc). Descrevemos duas oscila??es funcionalmente distintas dentro da faixa de frequ?ncia de gama, ambas acopladas ao ritmo teta durante explora??o ativa e sono REM: uma oscila??o com um pico de atividade em ~80 Hz e uma mais r?pida centrada em ~140 Hz. As duas oscila??es s?o diferencialmente moduladas pela fase de teta conforme a camada de CA1; o acoplamento teta-80 Hz ? mais forte no stratum lacunosum-moleculare, enquanto que o acoplamento teta-140 Hz ? mais forte no stratum oriens-alveus. Este perfil laminar sugere que a oscila??o de 80 Hz origina-se das entradas do c?rtex entorrinal para as camadas profundas de CA1, e que a oscila??o de 140 Hz reflete a atividade de CA1 em camadas superficiais. Ademais, n?s mostramos que a oscila??o de 140 Hz difere-se das oscila??es ripples associadas com sharp-waves em diversos aspectos chave. Nossos resultados demonstram a exist?ncia de novas oscila??es de alta frequ?ncia associadas ? teta e sugerem uma redefini??o das oscila??es gama alto

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior / Fatigue cracking is one of the most common distresses in flexible pavements in Brazil and in the world. Fatigue damage in asphalt mixtures originates as a small scale phenomenon. Recently, some authors have used the fine portion of the asphalt mixtures, called Fine Aggregates Matrix (FAM), as an intermediate step to estimate the hot mix asphalt (HMA) behavior. By definition, the FAM is composed of fine aggregates, mineral filler and asphalt binder. There are many volumetric issues of these kind of mixtures. In Brazil, the developed research regarding FAM uses sieve #10 (2.00mm) in the FAM sample preparation, since the #16 sieve (most used in the literature) does not belong to the set of national standardized sieves. Recently, some authors have used the concept of continuum damage mechanics in viscoelastic media in order to quantify the damage during the fatigue testing. In this theory the cracks are considered homogeneous dispersed in the medium, and are represented from internal state variables, determined experimentally. The objective of this study is to evaluate the influence of the variation of one of the FAM constituents, the aggregates, by varying its Maximum Nominal Size (MNS), on damage resistance of these asphalt mixtures. To achieve the objective, Linear Amplitude Sweep (LAS) and time sweep (TS) tests at controlled stress and controlled strain modes of loading were performed on the mixtures and the results were analyzed using the simplified viscoelastic continuum damage (S-VECD) methodology creating C vs S curves. Through the results and a failure criterion based on energy, cyclic tests can be simulated at different loading conditions for WÃhlerâs curves construction. The FAM dynamic moduli obtained are very similar to the frequency used to induce damage. However, for lower frequency, the intermediate FAM presented lower stiffness value. It was concluded that FAM with different MNS present very distinct damage performance, and the decrease in the MNS results in an increase in the mixture damage performance for low strain amplitudes. Also, the LAS testing protocol does not allow failure prediction due to the absence of failure in this type of test for FAM. / O Trincamento por fadiga à um dos problemas mais comuns em pavimentos flexÃveis no Brasil e no mundo. Danos por fadiga em misturas asfÃlticas se origina como um fenÃmeno de pequena escala. Recentemente, alguns autores tÃm utilizado a porÃÃo fina das misturas asfÃlticas, chamado Matriz de Agregados Finos (MAF), como um passo intermediÃrio para estimar o comportamento do Concreto AsfÃltico (CA). Por definiÃÃo, a MAF à composta de agregados finos, fÃler mineral e ligante asfÃltico. Hà muitas questÃes volumÃtricas neste tipo de mistura. No Brasil, a pesquisa desenvolvida sobre MAF usa peneira #10 (2,00mm) na preparaÃÃo de amostras, uma vez que a peneira #16 (mais utilizado na literatura) nÃo pertence ao conjunto de peneiras normatizadas nacionalmente. Recentemente, alguns autores tÃm utilizado o conceito de mecÃnica do dano contÃnuo em meios viscoelÃsticos, a fim de quantificar o dano durante o ensaio de fadiga. Nesta teoria as trincas sÃo consideradas homogÃneas dispersa no meio, e sÃo representados como variÃveis &#8203;internas &#8203;de estado determinadas experimentalmente. O objetivo deste estudo à avaliar a influÃncia da variaÃÃo de um dos constituintes da MAF, os agregados, variando seu tamanho mÃxima nominal (TMN), na resistÃncia ao dano destas misturas asfÃlticas. Para alcanÃar o objetivo, ensaios de Linear Amplitude Sweep (LAS) e Time Sweep (TS) à tensÃo controlada e à deformaÃÃo controlada foram realizadas nas misturas e os resultados foram analisados &#8203;&#8203;usando o mÃtodo simplified viscoelastic continuum damage (S-VECD) para a criaÃÃo de curvas C vs S. AtravÃs dos resultados e um critÃrio de falha com base em energia, os testes cÃclicos podem ser simulados em diferentes condiÃÃes de carregamento para a construÃÃo da curva de WÃhler. Os mÃdulos dinÃmicos obtidos das MAFs sÃo muito semelhantes aos da frequÃncia utilizada para induzir danos. No entanto, para menor freqÃÃncia, a MAF intermediÃria apresentou menor valor de rigidez. Concluiu-se que as MAFs com diferentes TMNs apresentaram desempenhos de dano muito distintos, e à diminuiÃÃo do TMN da mistura resulta em um aumento da resistÃncia ao dano para baixas amplitudes de deformaÃÃo. AlÃm disso, o protocolo de teste LAS nÃo permite a previsÃo de falha, devido à ausÃncia de falha neste tipo de ensaio para MAF.

Submitted by Renata Lopes (renatasil82@gmail.com) on 2016-05-17T12:37:21Z No. of bitstreams: 1 diogofernandes.pdf: 2723080 bytes, checksum: 27ac16e618618f1cb4c4dc6394956f80 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Adriana Oliveira (adriana.oliveira@ufjf.edu.br) on 2016-06-28T14:08:15Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 diogofernandes.pdf: 2723080 bytes, checksum: 27ac16e618618f1cb4c4dc6394956f80 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-06-28T14:08:15Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 diogofernandes.pdf: 2723080 bytes, checksum: 27ac16e618618f1cb4c4dc6394956f80 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-08-31 / CNPq - Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / Este trabalho tem como objetivo apresentar técnicas com complexidade computacional reduzida para implementação em hardware do modulador de amplitude em quadratura M-ária (M-ary quadrature amplitude modulation - M-QAM) de elevada ordem, que pode ser viável para sistemas banda larga. As técnicas propostas abrangem as constelações M-QAM quadradas e cruzadas (número par e ímpar de bits), a regra de decisão abrupta (hard decison rule), derivação de constelações M-QAM de baixa ordem das de elevada ordem. A análise de desempenho em termos de taxa de bits errados (bit error rate - BER) é realizada quando os símbolos M-QAM são corrompidos por ruído Gaussiano branco aditivo (additive white Gaussian noise - AWGN) e ruído Gaussiano impulsivo aditivo (additive impulsive Gaussian noise - AIGN). Os resultados de desempenho da taxa de bits errados mostram que a perda de desempenho das técnicas propostas é, em média, inferior a 1 dB, o que é um resultado surpreendente. Além disso, a implementação das técnicas propostas em arranjo de portas programáveis em campo (field programmable gate array - FPGA) é descrita e analisada. Os resultados obtidos com as implementações em dispositivo FPGA mostram que as técnicas propostas podem reduzir consideravelmente a utilização de recursos de hardware se comparadas com as técnicas presentes na literatura. Uma melhoria notável em termos de redução da utilização de recursos de hardware é conseguida através da utilização da técnica de modulação M-QAM genérica em comparação com a técnica de regra de decisão heurística (heuristic decision rule - HDR) aprimorada e uma técnica previamente concebida, a tà c cnica HDR. Com base nas análises apresentadas, a técnica HDR aprimorada é menos complexa do que a técnica HDR. Finalmente, os resultados numéricos mostram que a técnica de modulação M-QAM genérica pode ser oito vezes mais rápida do que as outras duas técnicas apresentadas, quando um grande número de símbolos M-QAM (p. ex., > 1000) são transmitidos consecutivamente. / This work aims at introducing techniques with reduced computational complexity for hardware implementation of high order M-ary quadrature amplitude modulation (MQAM) which may be feasible for broadband communication systems. The proposed techniques cover both square and cross M-QAM constellations (even and odd number of bits), hard decision rule, derivation of low-order M-QAM constellations from high order ones. Performance analyses, in terms of bit error rate (BER) is carried out when the M-QAM symbols are corrupted by either additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) or additive impulsive Gaussian noise (AIGN). The bit error rate performance results show that the performance loss of the proposed techniques is, on average, less than 1 dB, which is a remarkable result. Additionally, the implementation of the proposed techniques in field programmable gate array (FPGA) device is described and outlined. The results based on FPGA show that the proposed techniques can considerably reduce hardware resource utilization. A remarkable improvement in terms of hardware resource utilization reduction is achieved by using the generic M-QAM technique in comparison with the enhanced heuristic decision rule (HDR) technique and a previously designed technique, the HDR technique. Based on the analyses performed, the enhanced HDR technique is less complex than the HDR technique. Finally, the numerical results show that the generic M-QAM technique can be eight times faster than the other two techniques when a large number of M-QAM symbols (e.g., > 1000) are consecutively transmitted.

Depuis une dizaine d’années, avec la diversification des appareils connectés (PCs, Tablettes, TVs et Smartphones), l’écosystème Internet s’est drastiquement étendu. Aujourd’hui, 80 % du trafic IP mondial est concentré dans les centres de données. Pour répondre aux problématiques d’échelle des centres de données en terme de densité de bande passante, de consommation énergétique et de coût des interconnections, le développement de nouveaux émetteurs optiques est critique. L’objectif de cette thèse est de proposer et évaluer différentes architectures d’émetteur en photonique sur silicium afin de répondre à la prochaine norme de débit de 400 Gbit/s sur des transmissions de 2 kilomètres. Le modulateur électro-optique sélectionné est le modulateur silicium en anneau résonant. Il possède des avantages non négligeables: faibles dimensions, faible consommation énergétique, et il permet un multiplexage dense en longueurs d’ondes. Durant cette thèse, l’optimisation de l’émetteur optique a été faite de manière progressive: de la jonction active à l’émetteur complet. Cette première étude a identifié les différents compromis à faire sur les paramètres du modulateur en anneau afin de définir ses performances. Un model compact du modulateur a été créé, permettant d’optimiser le composant avec un temps de simulation très réduit. Puis, tout en utilisant le modèle compact, deux architectures d’émetteur ont été étudiées basées sur une architecture classique de la littérature. Elles sont basées sur la mise en série de 8 modulateurs en anneau, chacun modulant une longueur d’onde différente. La différence entre les deux architectures vient du format de modulation utilisé: la première est modulée avec des signaux sur deux niveaux électriques avec des signaux sur 2 niveaux électriques au format d’impulsions en amplitude (PAM-2) à 50 Gbaud ; alors que la deuxième est modulée avec des signaux sur 4 niveaux électriques au format d’impulsions en amplitude (PAM-4). Les deux solutions répondent aux demandes de performances de la norme 400 Gbit/s avec les mêmes points de compromis de fonctionnement. Finalement, de nouvelles architectures d’émetteur optique ont été proposées permettant de réaliser la modulation PAM-4. Contrairement aux solutions précédemment étudiées, ces architectures utilisent en entrée deux flux de bits en parallèle qui sont optiquement combinés pour générer en sortie une modulation PAM-4. Une première solution est basée sur la mise en série de deux modulateurs en anneaux. Cette architecture a été validée avec des caractérisations de transmission optique à 30 Gbit/s avec seulement 1 Vpp de tension de commande. Une seconde solution a ensuite été proposée, elle est basée sur l’utilisation de deux modulateurs mis en parallèle dans un interféromètre Mach Zehnder. De la même manière, des caractérisations de transmission à 30 Gbit/s avec 1.2 Vpp de tension de commande ont permis de valider le fonctionnement de l’architecture. / Over the past decade, with the diversification of connected devices (PCs, Tablets, TVs and Smartphones), the Internet ecosystem has drastically extended. Today, 80 % world traffic is concentrated in the data centers where the data rate, the size and the cost is still growing. To address such scaling issues as bandwidth density, energy consumption and cost of the interconnects inside the data centers, the development of new optical transmitters is critical. The aim of this thesis is to propose and evaluate transmitter architectures using silicon photonics technology to address next 400 Gbit/s data rate standard over up to 2 kilometer links. The selected electro-optical modulator is the silicon ring resonator modulator which has substantial benefits: low footprint, low energy consumption and enables dense multiplexing. The optical transmitter architectures evaluations were successively optimized: from the active junction to the complete optical transmitter. This study identified the performances trade-offs impacted by the ring resonator modulator parameters. A compact model was generated to physically optimize the component in a reduced simulation time. Then, using the compact model, two transmitter architectures were studied based on classical architecture. Both are based on eight ring resonator modulators arranged in series modulating eight different wavelengths. The difference is the modulation format: the first one is electrically modulated at 50 Gbaud in 2-levels pulse amplitude modulation (PAM-2) and the second one at 25 Gbaud 4-levels pulse amplitude modulation (PAM-4). The two solutions fit the 400 Gbit/s performances demand with the use of the same trade-offs. Finally, new transmitter architectures were proposed to generate PAM-4 modulation. Unlike the previous architecture, they have in input two parallel bit streams which are optically combined to generate the PAM-4 modulation. The first solution is based on two silicon ring resonator modulator arranged in series. This architecture was validated through 30 Gbit/s transmission characterizations with only 1 Vpp. A second solution was then proposed, based on two silicon ring resonator modulators arranged in parallel in a Mach Zehnder interferometer. In the same way, transmission characterizations at 30 Gbit/s with 1.2 Vpp allows this architecture to be validated.

Notre travail s'inscrit dans le cadre des télécommunications par fibres optiques où l'information transite sous la forme d'impulsions lumineuses dans le guide d'onde que constitue la fibre. Face à la demande sans cesse croissante en matière de débit d'information transmise dans une fibre, les trains d'impulsions qui véhiculent cette information sont rendus plus denses :les impulsions sont plus brèves et la distance qui les sépare diminue. Cette évolution est freinée par deux aspects qui sont de natures très différentes. Le premier naît du besoin de diriger l'information dans un réseau, ce qui nécessite d'effectuer des opérations logiques et de passer par des dispositifs électroniques qui sont lents à l'échelle de l'optique. Le deuxième aspect consiste en la dispersion de la vitesse de groupe présente dans la fibre. Sous son infiuence, les impulsions ont tendance à s'étaler et peuvent se recouvrir au sein du train, ce qui détruit l'information.<br><p>La dispersion peut être contrée par la non-linéarité de la fibre optique. Celle-ci provoque l'effet inverse de la dispersion :une contraction de l'impulsion. Si l'on choisit judicieusement le profil des impulsions, elles peuvent se propager sans déformation grâce à la compensation des deux effets antagonistes que sont la dispersion et la non-linéarité. De telles impulsions sont appelées « solitons ». Ils sont stables et permettent de véhiculer l'information sans la détruire. Malheureusement, la nature non linéaire de leur régime de propagation implique qu'ils modifient le milieu supportant leur propagation au point d'interagir avec leurs voisins et de modifier leur instant d'arrivée en fin de fibre. Cet effet détériore l'information et oblige à espacer les impulsions qui transitent dans la fibre, ce qui limite le débit d'information véhiculée.<br><p>Jusqu'à présent, les effets non linéaires dans les fibres optiques ont principalement été étudiés dans une approximation scalaire de la réalité, ce qui ne permet pas de prédire un certain nombre de phénomènes qui font intervenir la polarisation du champ électrique associé à l'impulsion. Un modèle vectoriel permet, entre autres, de décrire les « solitons elliptiques fondamentaux », les « solitons de parois de domaines de polarisation » et les « états liés de solitons vectoriels ».<br><p>C'est à ces êtres optiques que nous nous sommes intéressés dans notre travail qui comprend trois grands axes.<br><p>Le premier consiste en une étude théorique des états liés de solitons vectoriels. Préalablement à notre étude, ceux-ci se sont révélés instables dans des simulations numériques. Nous avons abordé le problème de manière analytique et montré l'existence d'états liés de solitons vectoriels. Ensuite, nous avons étudié leur dynamique et montré qu'ils sont instables par brisure de symétrie dans les fibres optiques isotropes. Suite à cela, nous avons analysé leur propagation en fibres à biréfringence aléatoire et montré qu'ils y sont stables, ce qui a permis d'expliquer la réussite d'expériences de multiplexage en polarisation dans lesquelles deux impulsions successives du train peuvent être vues comme des états liés.<br><p>La formulation mathématique des états liés que nous avons étudiés dans les fibres optiques est analogue à celle des états liés spatiaux qui apparaissent dans les milieux de type Kerr. Cette analogie nous a permis de proposer un principe de commutation, basé sur l'instabilité des états liés par brisure de symétrie, qui présente les avantages de nécessiter une très faible puissance de contrôle et de travailler beaucoup plus rapidement que l'électronique.<br><p>Les deux autres axes de notre travail sont liés à l'observation expérimentale des solitons elliptiques parmi lesquels les « solitons de parois de domaines de polarisation » constituent de bons porteurs d'information dans les fibres optiques car, selon les simulations numériques, ils ne souffriraient pas des interactions entre solitons voisins d'un train telles que nous les avons décrites ci-dessus pour les solitons scalaires. Afin d'observer les solitons elliptiques, trois étapes sont nécessaires. D'un point de vue pratique, elles s'agencent comme suit :il faut vérifier qu'il existe des fibres dont l'isotropie soit suffisante pour soutenir leur propagation, puis il faut disposer des instruments qui permettent de les observer et, enfin, il faut les générer. Cette dernière étape mérite une étude complète à elle seule, et nous ne l'avons pas abordée.<br><p>Nous avons par contre vérifié la possibilité d'observer des phénomènes qui ne peuvent se produire qu'en fibres isotropes et qui trouvent leur origine dans le même phénomène physique, à savoir, l'interaction entre la dispersion et la non-linéarité vectorielle. En l'occurrence, nous avons effectué la première observation d'une prédiction effectuée il y a trente ans, mais jamais observée jusqu'alors :l'existence de l'« instabilité modulationnelle de polarisation » en fibre optique isotrope. La vérification de toutes les prédictions associées à cette instabilité nous a permis de conclure que le choix d'une fibre de type « spun » associé à des précautions d'utilisation permettra de propager des solitons elliptiques.<br><p>Suite à ce succès, nous avons abordé l'étude du dispositif de détection des solitons elliptiques. Pour comprendre sa spécificité, il faut savoir que l'observation des solitons elliptiques nécessite de travailler à des puissances de crête très élevées pour faire ressortir la non-linéarité de la fibre optique. Ces puissances sont atteintes en concentrant une faible énergie sur un temps ultracourt, de l'ordre d'une centaine de femtosecondes. Nous avons développé deux méthodes de mesure basées sur la reconstruction de la phase spectrale de l'impulsion au départ de signaux de battement entre fréquences voisines du spectre. Ces méthodes présentent l'avantage d'être purement linéaires, ce qui leur confère une très grande sensibilité ;et de permettre le calcul simple et sans ambiguïté de la phase spectrale. La première des techniques que nous avons développées est adaptée aux trains ultrarapides d'impulsions courtes et répond à un besoin dans le domaine des télécommunications, tandis que la seconde peut s'appliquer aux bas taux de répétitions et aux impulsions courtes ou ultracourtes. / Doctorat en sciences appliquées / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished