La présente étude évalue la capacité de EPA:DHA 6:1, une formulation d’omega-3 capable d’induire la formation continue de monoxyde d’azote par la NO synthase endothéliale, à prévenir l’hypertension et la dysfonction endothéliale induites par l’angiotensine II (Ang II) chez le rat. L’hypertension induite par l’Ang II est associée à une dysfonction endothéliale caractérisée par une altération des composantes de la relaxation et une augmentation des réponses contractiles dépendantes de l’endothélium. L’Ang II augmente le stress oxydant vasculaire et l’expression de NADPH oxydase, COXs, eNOS, et AT1R, alors que SKCa et connexin 37 sont sous-exprimés. EPA:DHA 6:1 prévient l’hypertension, la dysfonction endothéliale et la surexpression des protéines cibles. En conclusion, la consommation chronique de EPA:DHA 6:1 prévient l’hypertension et la dysfonction endothéliale induites par l’Ang II chez le rat, probablement en prévenant le stress oxydant dû à la NADPH oxydase et aux cyclooxygénases. / EPA:DHA 6:1 has been shown to be a superior omega-3 formulation inducing a sustained endothelial NO synthase-derived formation of nitric oxide. This study examined whether chronic intake of EPA:DHA 6:1 prevents hypertension and endothelial dysfunction induced by angiotensin II (Ang II) in rats. Ang II-induced hypertension was associated with endothelial dysfunction characterized by blunted components of relaxation and increased endothelium-dependent contractile responses. Ang II increased the vascular oxidative stress, and the expression of NADPH oxidase subunits, COXs, eNOS, and AT1R whereas SKCa and connexin 37 were down-regulated. Intake of EPA:DHA 6:1 prevented the Ang II-induced hypertension and endothelial dysfunction, and improved expression of target proteins. In conclusion, chronic intake of EPA:DHA 6:1 prevented the Ang II induced hypertension and endothelial dysfunction in rats, most likely by preventing NADPH oxidase and cyclooxygenase-derived oxidative stress.

Doctor Pharmaceuticae - DPharm / Tulbaghia violacea Harv. (Alliaceae) is a small bulbous herb which belongs to the family, Alliaceae, most commonly associated with onions and garlic. In South Africa (SA), this herb has been traditionally used in the treatment of various ailments, including fever, colds, asthma, paralysis, hypertension (HTN) and stomach problems. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of methanol leaf extracts (MLE) of T. violacea on the blood pressure (BP) and heart rate (HR) in anaesthetized male spontaneously hypertensive rats and to find out the mechanism(s) by which it acts. The MLE of T. violacea (5 - 150 mg/kg), angiotensin I (ang I, 3.1 - 100 mg/kg), captopril (10 mg/kg), angiotensin II (ang II, 3.1 - 50 g/kg), losartan (30 mg/kg), phenylephrine (0.01 ; 0.16 mg/kg), prazosin (1 mg/kg), dobutamine (0.2 ; 10.0mg/kg), propranolol (0.1 - 12.8 mg/kg), muscarine (0.16 -10 mg/kg), and atropine (0.02 - 20.48 mg/kg) were administered intravenously into male spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) weighing between 300 g and 350 g and aged less than 5; months. The MLE of T. violacea and/or the standard drugs were infused alone, simultaneously, or separately into each animal. The BP and HR were measured via a pressure transducer connecting the femoral artery and the Powerlab. The vehicle (0.2 mls of a mixture of dimethylsulfoxide and normal saline), T. violacea (60 mg/kg) and captopril (10 mg/kg) were injected intraperitoneally into some SHR for 21 days to investigate the chronic effect of these agents on plasma levels of aldosterone. The mean change, the mean of the individual percentage changes and the percentage difference (in mean) observed with each intervention was calculated and statistically analyzed using the Student t test for significant difference (p < 0.05). The Microsoft Excel software was used for statistical analysis. T. violacea significantly (p < 0.05) reduced the systolic, diastolic, and mean arterial BP; and HR dose-dependently. In a dose-dependent manner, ang I, ang II, phenylephrine significantly (p < 0.05) increased the BP, while propranolol, muscarine and atropine reduced the BP. The increases in BP due to dobutamine were not dose-dependent. In a dose dependent manner, phenylephrine and propranolol reduced the HR, while dobutamine increased the HR. The effect of ang I, ang II, muscarine and atropine on HR were not dose-dependent; with both increases as well as decreases observed with ang I, and II and atropine, while decreases were seen with muscarine. Captopril produced significant (p < 0.05) reduction in BP which were not associated with any change in HR. The co-infusion of ang I with the MLE produced significant (p < 0.05) reduction in BP, which were not associated with significant changes in HR. The co-infusion of ang II with the MLE did not produce any significant changes in BP or HR when compared to the infusion of the standard drug alone. The co-infusion of phenylephrine with the MLE did not produce any significant change in BP or HR when compared to the values obtained with the infusion of the standard drug alone, in both the absence and presence of prazosin. The co-infusion of dobutamine with T. violacea produced siginificant (p < 0.05) increases in DBP which were associated with significant (p < 0.05) reductions in HR, when compared to the values obtained with the infusion of the standard drug alone. Theco-infusion of atropine with the MLE did not produce any significant change in BP or HR when compared to the values obtained with the infusion of atropine alone. However, the infusion of T. violacea, 20 minutes after pre-treating animals with atropine (5.12 mg/kg) lead to dose dependent significant (p< 0.05) increases in BP, which were associated with dose-dependent increases in HR. The chronic treatment of animals with T. violacea or captropril produced (a) signicant (p < 0.05) reductions in the plasma levels of aldosterone when compared to the values obtained in the vehicle-treated group, (b) produced signifiant (p< 0.05) reduction in BP in the captopril treated group when compared to the vehicle-treated, (c) did not produce any signficant change in BP in the T. violacea-treated group when compared to the vehicle-treated group and (d) did not produce any signifiant change in HR or body weight in any of the groups. The result obtained in this study suggests that T. violacea reduced BP and HR in the SHR. Secondly, the BP and HR reducing effect of the MLE may involve a) the inhibition of the ACE, b) the inhibition of the beta; adrenoceptors, c) the stimulation of the muscarinic receptors and d) the reduction of the levels of aldosternone in plasma. The results also suggest that the MLE may not act through the angiotensin II receptors or the alpha adrenergic receptors. / South Africa

Le stress oxydatif est impliqué dans l’expression du récepteur B1 des kinines (RB1) dans différents modèles de diabète et d'hypertension. Puisque l'angiotensine II (Ang II) et l'endothéline-1 (ET-1) sont des peptides prooxydants impliqués dans les maladies cardiovasculaires, leur contribution dans l'augmentation de l'expression du RB1 a été étudiée dans des cellules musculaires lisses vasculaires (CMLV). Le QRT-PCR et l’immunobuvardage de type Western ont été utilisés pour mesurer l’expression du RB1 dans des CMLV dérivées de la lignée A10 et de l’aorte de rats Sprague-Dawley. Cette étude montre que l’Ang II augmente l’expression du RB1 (ARNm et protéine) en fonction de la concentration et du temps (maximum 1 μM entre 3-6 h). Cette augmentation implique le récepteur AT1, la PI3K et le NF-κB, mais non le récepteur AT2 et ERK1/2. Aussi, le récepteur ETA de l’ET-1 est impliqué dans la réponse à l’Ang II à 6-8 h et non à 1-4 h. Par contre, l’ET-1 augmente l’expression du RB1 (maximum 2-4 h) via la stimulation des récepteurs ETA et ETB. L’augmentation du RB1 causée par l’Ang II et l’ET-1 est bloquée par les antioxydants (N-acétyl-cystéine et diphénylèneiodonium). Ces résultats suggèrent que l’Ang II induit le RB1 dans les CMLV par le récepteur AT1 dans la première phase, et par la libération d’ET-1 (majoritairement par ETA) dans la phase tardive, via le stress oxydatif et l’activation de la PI3K et du NF-κB. Ces résultats précisent le mécanisme impliqué dans la surexpression du RB1 ayant des effets néfastes dans le diabète et l'hypertension. / Oxidative stress is involved in the overexpression of kinin B1 receptor (B1R) in various models of diabetes and hypertension. Since angiotensin II (Ang II) and endothelin-1 (ET-1) are pro-oxidative peptides involved in cardiovascular diseases, their contribution in increasing the expression of B1R was examined in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC). QRT-PCR and Western blot analysis were used to measure the expression of B1R in VSMC derived from A10 cell line and the aorta of Sprague-Dawley rats. This study shows that Ang II increases the expression of B1R (mRNA and protein) in a concentration- and time-dependent manner (maximum 1 μM between 3-6 h). This increase involves AT1 receptor, PI3K and NF-κB, but not AT2 receptor and ERK1/2. Moreover, ETA receptor is involved in the effect of Ang II at 6-8 h but not at 1-4 h. However, ET-1 increases expression of B1R (maximum 2-4 h) via stimulation of ETA and ETB receptors. Ang II and ET-1-induced increase expression of B1R is blocked by antioxidants (N-acetyl-L-cysteine and diphenyleneiodonium). These results suggest that Ang II induces B1R in VSMC by AT1 receptor in the first phase and by releasing ET-1 (predominantly by ETA receptor) in the late phase, via oxidative stress and activation of PI3K and NF-κB. These results clarify the mechanism involved in the overexpression of B1R which has adverse effects in diabetes and hypertension.

Les cardiomyopathies sont une atteinte du myocarde qui se présente sous différentes formes telles que l’hypertrophie ou la dilatation des chambres cardiaques. Ces maladies du muscle cardiaque peuvent affecter la contraction cardiaque et dégénèrer en insuffisance cardiaque. Aussi, l’hypertrophie et l’insuffisance cardiaques sont associées à une augmentation de la morbidité et de la mortalité cardiovasculaires principalement due au remodelage électrique et à la survenue d’arythmies. De plus, le retard de repolarisation, associé à une diminution des courants K+, est un des troubles cardiaques les plus couramment observés lors de ces pathologies cardiaques. L’angiotensine II (Ang II) et la norépinéphrine, principaux effecteurs du système rénine-angiotensine et du système nerveux sympathique, peuvent tous deux agir directement sur le cœur en liant les récepteurs de type 1 de l’Ang II (AT1) et les récepteurs adrénergiques. L’Ang II et la norépinéphrine sont associées au développement des cardiomyopathies, au remodelage cardiaque et à une prolongation de la durée du potentiel d'action cardiaque. Deux modèles de souris trangéniques surexprimant spécifiquement au niveau cardiaque les récepteurs AT1 (la souris AT1R) ou les récepteurs α1B-adrénergiques (la souris α1B-AR) ont été créés afin d’étudier les effets de ces stimuli sur le cœur. Ces deux modèles de souris développent du remodelage cardiaque, soit de l’hypertrophie chez les souris AT1R (cardiomyopathie hypertrophique) ou une dilatation des chambres cardiaques chez les souris α1B-AR (cardiomyopathie dilatée). Au stade avancé de la maladie, les deux modèles de souris transgéniques sont insuffisants cardiaques. Des données préliminaires ont aussi montré que les souris AT1R et les souris α1B-AR ont une incidence accrue d’arythmies ainsi qu’une prolongation de la durée du potentiel d’action. De plus, ces deux modèles de souris meurent subitement et prématurément, ce qui laissait croire qu’en conditions pathologiques, l’activation des récepteurs AT1 ou des récepteurs α1B-adrénergiques pouvait affecter la repolarisation et causer l’apparition d’arythmies graves. Ainsi, l’objectif de ce projet était de caractériser la repolarisation ventriculaire des souris AT1R et α1B-AR afin de déterminer si la suractivation chronique des récepteurs de l’Ang II ou des récepteurs 1B-adrénergiques pouvait affecter directement les paramètres électrophysiologiques et induire des arythmies. Les résultats obtenus ont révélé que les souris AT1R et les souris α1B-AR présentent un retard de repolarisation (prolongation de l’intervalle QTc (dans l’électrocardiogramme) et de la durée du potentiel d’action) causé par une diminution des courants K+ (responsables de la repolarisation). Aussi, l’incidence d’arythmies est plus importante dans les deux groupes de souris transgéniques comparativement à leur contrôle respectif. Finalement, nous avons vu que les troubles de repolarisation se produisent également dans les groupes de souris transgéniques plus jeunes, avant l’apparition de l’hypertrophie ou du remodelage cardiaque. Ces résultats suggèrent qu’en conditions pathologiques, l’activation chronique des récepteurs de l’Ang II ou des récepteurs α1B-adrénergiques peut favoriser le développement d’arythmies en retardant la repolarisation et cela, indépendamment de changements hémodynamiques ou du remodelage cardiaque. Les résultats de ces études pourront servir à comprendre les mécanismes responsables du développement d’arythmies cardiaques lors du remodelage et de l’insuffisance cardiaques et pourraient aider à optimiser le choix des traitements chez ces patients atteints ou à risque de développer de l’hypertrophie ou du remodelage cardiaque. / Cardiomyopathies are diseases of the myocardium that may have several causes and comes in different forms such as cardiac hypertrophy or dilatation. Cardiomyopathies are often progressive diseases that cause a loss of heart function and lead to heart failure. In addition, hypertrophy and heart failure are associated with increased morbidity and mortality mainly due to electrical remodeling and arrhythmias. Delayed repolarization associated with a decrease of K+ currents, is one of the most common cardiac disorders associated with cardiac remodeling. Angiotensin II (Ang II) and norepinephrine, the main effectors of the renin-angiotensin system and of the sympathetic nervous system, can both act directly on the heart by binding the Ang II type 1 receptor (AT1) and the adrenergic receptors. Ang II and norepinephrine are both associated with the development of cardiomyopathy, cardiac remodeling and prolongation of action potential duration. Two transgenic mouse models overexpressing the AT1 receptors (AT1R mouse) or the α1B-adrenergic receptors (α1B-AR mouse) specifically in the myocardium have been developed to study the effects of these stimuli on the heart. These two mouse models developed cardiac remodeling such as hypertrophy for the AT1R mice (hypertrophic cardiomyopathy) and dilatation of cardiac chambers for α1B-AR mice (dilated cardiomyopathy). In advanced stage of the disease, the two transgenic mouse models exhibit heart failure. Preliminary data showed that both transgenic mouse models experience cardiac arrhythmias and have a prolongation of the action potential duration. Moreover, AT1R and α1B-AR mice die suddenly and prematurely, which suggested that in pathological conditions, activation of the Ang II type 1 receptor or of the α1B-adrenergic receptor may affect repolarization and can be responsible for the incidence of serious arrhythmias causing the death of these mice. Base on these informations, the objective of this project was to characterize the ventricular repolarization in AT1R and α1B-AR mice to see if an increase of the activation of the Ang II type 1 receptor or of the 1B-adrenergic receptor could directly affect electrophysiological parameters and lead to severe arrhythmias. Results showed that both AT1R mice and α1B-AR mice have a delayed ventricular repolarization (prolongation of the QTc interval and action potential duration) caused by a decrease in outward K+ currents (responsible for the repolarization). In addition, the incidence of arrhythmias is higher in both groups of transgenic mice compared with their respective control. Finally, we have seen that repolarization disorders also occur in younger mice of both models of cardiomyopathy that do not present sign of hypertrophy and cardiac remodeling. These results suggest that under pathological conditions, the overactivation of the Ang II type 1 receptor or of the α1B-adrenergic receptor can directly promote the development of arrhythmias by delaying the repolarization independently of hemodynamic variations and pathological phenotype. The results of these studies can be useful to understand the mechanisms underlying the development of cardiac arrhythmias in patients suffering from cardiac hypertrophy or failure and may help to choose the best treatment for these patients.

INTRODUÇÃO: Capítulo 1. A Insuficiência Cardíaca (IC) é acompanhada de uma hiperativação simpática e do sistema renina-angiotensina (SRA). As ações deletérias do SRA são atribuídas à Angiotensina II (AngII), mas a Angiotensina-(1- 7) (Ang-(1-7)), um metabólito da AngII, demonstra efeitos cardiovasculares benéficos, contrários aos da AngII. O conceito tradicional é de que as concentrações sistêmicas mediam as respostas do SRA, mas evidências emergem acerca da importância funcional do SRA local. Nesse estudo, estudou-se o SRA circulante e muscular esquelético na IC, testando-se a hipótese de que as alterações seriam diferentes nesses dois territórios, e que o treinamento físico corrigiria essas alterações. Capítulo 2. A IC é uma síndrome sistêmica, onde fatores neuroendócrinos, como a AngII, podem levar a alterações periféricas. Na musculatura esquelética, a hiperatividade do sistema ubiquitina-proteassoma (SUP) é um dos elementos que compõem um quadro de miopatia, aumentando o catabolismo muscular em direção à atrofia, e contribuindo com o agravamento da síndrome. O treinamento físico normaliza o SUP e reduz as concentrações plasmáticas de AngII na IC. Dessa forma, testamos a hipótese de que a redução do SUP mediada pelo treinamento físico na IC depende da queda das concentrações plasmáticas de AngII. MÉTODOS: Capítulo 1. Ratos Wistar, machos, foram induzidos à IC por ligadura da artéria coronária descendente anterior, ou cirurgia fictícia (Sham, SH). Os animais foram divididos em grupos mantidos sedentários, SD (SHSD, n=10 e ICSD, n=12) ou submetidos ao treinamento físico, TR (SHTR, n=10, ICTR, n=12). O treinamento físico foi realizado em esteira, a 60% do consumo máximo de oxigênio, 5 dias por semana durante 8 semanas, quando foram sacrificados para coleta de sangue e músculos (sóleo e plantar). As angiotensinas circulantes e musculares foram dosadas por HPLC. A atividade sérica e muscular da ECA e da ECA2 por fluorimetria. Os receptores AT1 e AT2 foram analisados por expressão gênica (RT-PCR) e proteica (Western Blot), e o receptor Mas por expressão gênica. Capítulo 2. Ratos Wistar, machos, foram induzidos à IC por ligadura da artéria coronária descendente anterior, ou cirurgia fictícia (Sham). Após 4 semanas, os animais Sham (n=10) constituíram um grupo sedentário saudável (SHSD) e os animais com IC (n=30) foram igualmente alocados em 3 grupos: um mantido sedentário (ICSD), um treinado (ICTR) e um treinado com as concentrações plasmáticas de AngII nos mesmos níveis dos animais do grupo ICSD (ICTRAII), mantidas através de minipump osmótica. O treinamento físico foi realizado em esteira, a 60% do consumo máximo de oxigênio, 5 dias por semana durante 8 semanas, quando foram sacrificados para coleta de sangue e músculos (sóleo e plantar). As angiotensinas circulantes e musculares foram dosadas por HPLC. A expressão gênica das enzimas ligases E3?, MuRF e Atrogin foi realizada por RT-PCR. O receptor AT1, as proteínas ubiquitinadas e as proteínas carboniladas (Oxyblot) foram quantificadas por Western Blot. A atividade da porção 26S do proteassoma foi determinada por fluorimetria. RESULTADOS: Capítulo 1. Na circulação, a atividade da ECA2 estava reduzida na IC, e o treinamento físico reduziu a atividade da ECA e restaurou a atividade da ECA2 esses animais. A concentração de AngII reduziu nos grupos treinados, e a razão Ang-(1-7)/AngII aumentou no grupo ICTR. Nos músculos, não houve alteração em relação à atividade ou expressão proteica da ECA ou da ECA2, mas a concentração de AngII estava aumentada com a IC, e normalizou com o treinamento físico. A concentração de Ang-(1-7) aumentou no músculo plantar do grupo ICTR, e a razão Ang-(1-7)/AngII apresentou forte tendência de aumento no músculo sóleo dos animais treinados. No músculo sóleo, o AT1 estava aumentado nos animais com IC, e o treinamento físico normalizou a expressão gênica e proteica desse receptor, e também aumentou a expressão gênica do receptor Mas nos grupos treinados. No músculo plantar, normalizou a expressão gênica do receptor Mas, sem alterar o AT1. Não foram encontradas diferenças significativas na expressão do receptor AT2 nos músculos estudados. Capítulo 2. O treinamento físico promoveu uma melhora da capacidade de exercício em ambos os grupos treinados. A AngII aumentou nos músculos dos animais com IC, e o treinamento físico normalizou esses valores. Na circulação, como se esperava, a AngII diminuiu apenas no grupo ICTR. A expressão do receptor AT1 aumentou no músculo sóleo com a IC e normalizou com o treinamento físico, sem diferenças entre grupos no músculo plantar. Em relação à expressão gênica das E3 ligases e na quantidade de proteínas ubiquitinadas e carboniladas, não houve diferenças entre os grupos no músculo sóleo. Já no músculo plantar, a expressão do atrogin estava aumentada nos animais com IC, e o treinamento físico reduziu a expressão tanto da atrogin quanto da E3? e da MuRF. Essa melhora foi prejudicada com a infusão de AngII. Refletindo esse cenário, a quantidade de proteínas ubiquitinadas e carboniladas estavam aumentadas na IC e reduziram com o treinamento físico, e a infusão de AngII atenuou a redução das proteínas ubiquitinadas e aboliu a diminuição das oxidadas. A atividade do proteassoma aumentou em ambos os músculos de animais com IC, e o treinamento físico reduziu a atividade nos animais treinados, sendo significativamente menor no grupo ICTRAII. CONCLUSÕES: Capítulo 1. Em modelo de IC crônica, os níveis de AngII estão aumentados na musculatura esquelética, mas não na circulação. O treinamento físico reduz os níveis plasmáticos de AngII na circulação e normaliza nos músculos. Essa redução é acompanhada de um aumento dos níveis de Ang-(1-7) ou da melhora na razão Ang-(1-7)/AngII em ambos os territórios, indicando uma atenuação da hiperativação do SRA na IC com o treinamento físico. Capítulo 2. Em modelo isquêmico de IC crônica em ratos, há uma diferença no perfil do SUP no músculo sóleo e no músculo plantar. O treinamento físico reduz a atividade do SUP e, ao menos no músculo plantar, essa melhora parece ser dependente da redução dos níveis de AngII / INTRODUCTION: Chapter 1. Heart Failure (IC) is a syndrome accompanied by a sympathetic and renin-angiotensin system (RAS) hyperactivity. The deleterious actions of RAS are attributed to Angiotensin II (AngII), but Angiotensin-(1-7) (Ang-(1- 7)), a metabolite of AngII, shows benefic cardiovascular effects opposing to AngII. The traditional concept states that the systemic concentrations are responsible for RAS actions, although increasingly evidence emerge about the functional role of local RAS. The working hypothesis was that the RAS alterations, if any, would be different on this two territories of heart failure rats, and the exercise training should correct this alterations. Chapter 2. Heart failure is a systemic syndrome in which neuroendocrine factors, such as angiotensin II (AngII), can lead to peripheral damage. In skeletal muscle, the hyperactivity of ubiquitin-proteasome system (SUP) is one of the elements composing the myopathy framework, elevating the catabolism toward atrophy, and contributing to the worsening of the syndrome. Exercise training normalizes SUP and reduces plasmatic concentrations of AngII. On this way, we tested the hypothesis that exercise training-mediated SUP deactivation is dependent on plasma falls of AngII. METHODS: Chapter 1. Male Wistar rats underwent left coronary artery ligation or Sham (SH) operation. They were allocated in sedentary, SD (SHSD, n=10 and ICSD, n=12) or trained, TR (SHTR, n=10 and ICTR, n=12) groups. The exercise training consisted in treadmill running, at 60% of maximal oxygen uptake, 5 days per week, during 8 weeks, when they were killed for blood and skeletal muscle (soleus and plantaris) collection. Angiotensin\'s concentrations were determined by HPLC. ACE and ACE2 activity were accessed in serum and muscles by fluorimetry, and by protein expression (Western Blot) in the muscles. AT1 and AT2 receptors were quantified by protein and gene (RT-PCR) expression, and Mas receptor by gene expression. Chapter 2. Male Wistar rats underwent left coronary artery ligation or Sham operation. After 4 weeks, Sham operated rats (n=10) constituted a healthy, sedentary control group (SHSD), and the heart failure rats (n=30) were equally allocated into 3 groups: sedentary (ICSD), trained (ICTR) and trained with plasma AngII at the same level of sedentary, heart failure rats (ICTRAII), kept by an osmotic minipump. The exercise training consisted in treadmill running, at 55% of maximal oxygen uptake, 5 days per week, during 8 weeks, when they were killed for blood and skeletal muscle (soleus and plantaris) collection. AngII concentrations were determined by HPLC. Gene expression of E3?, MuRF e Atrogin were performed by PR-PCR. AT1 receptor, ubiquitinated and carbonylated (oxyblot) proteins were quantified by Western Blot. Proteasomal 26S activity were determined by fluorimetry. RESULTS: Chapter 1. Heart failure reduced circulating ACE2 activity, and exercise training reduced ACE and normalized ACE2 activity in this rats. AngII concentration reduced in both trained groups, increasing Ang-(1-7)/AngII ratio on ICTR group. The studied skeletal muscles did not change activity or protein expression of ACE and ACE2, although the AngII, which was increased with heart failure, has normalized with exercise training. Absolute Ang-(1-7) concentration increased in plantaris muscle, and a strong tendency of significant increase was shown in soleus muscle of trained rats. Also in the soleus, AT1 receptor raised with heart failure, and the exercise training normalized the gene as well as protein expression of this receptor, also increasing gene expression of Mas receptor of trained groups. In plantaris muscle, exercise normalized Mas receptor in ICTR, without influencing AT1 receptor. No significant changes among groups were found in relation to AT2 receptor of the studied muscles. Chapter 2. Exercise training promoted an improvement of exercise capacity in trained groups. AngII raised in skeletal muscle of rats with heart failure, and exercise training normalized this. Circulating AngII, as expected, reduced only in ICTR group. AT1 receptor expression increased in soleus muscle of heart failure, and normalized after exercise in trained rats, without any difference among groups in plantaris muscle. Regarding E3 ligases gene expression and quantity of ubiquitinated and carbonylated proteins, there were no differences among groups in soleus muscle. Nevertheless, in plantaris muscle, atrogin expression was increased in heart failure rats, and exercise training reduced atrogin, as well as E3alpha and MuRF expression. These improvements were impaired by AngII infusion. Mirroring this scenario, the amount of ubiquitinated and carbonylated proteins increased with heart failure and reduced with exercise training, but AngII infusion lessen the reduction of ubiquitinated proteins and completely blunted the effects of exercise on carbonylated proteins. Proteasome 26S activity was increased in both muscles of heart failure rats, and exercise avoided this increase in trained rats, being significantly reduced in ICTRAII. CONCLUSIONS: Chapter 1. In a model of chronic heart failure rats, AngII levels are increased in skeletal muscle, but not in the circulation. The exercise training reduces plasma and normalizes skeletal muscle concentration of AngII. This reduction is accompanied by an increase Ang-(1-7) levels, or improvements of Ang-(1-7)/AngII ratio in both systemic and local territories, indicating an attenuation of RAS hyperactivity with exercise training in heart failure rats. Chapter 2. In a model of chronic heart failure rats, there is a difference on SUP activation profile in soleus and plantaris muscle. Exercise training reduces SUP activity and, in plantaris muscle, this amelioration seems to be, at least in part, dependent of a reduction in AngII levels

Hemos inducido en ratas wistar dos modelos de hipertensión arterial (HTA): hipertensión vasculorrenal 2 riñones-1 clip (2R-1C) e hipertensión por déficits crónico de óxido nítrico (NO). La angiotensina II (AII) participa en el desarrollo y mantenimiento de la hipertensión vasculorrenal y por déficit crónico de NO. La administración crónica de losartán, aún previniendo el desarrollo de la hipertensión por déficit crónico de NO, no confiere protección completa frente a las alteraciones hemodinámicas que dicha hipertensión conlleva. Los bloqueantes de los receptores de la AII, saralasina y losartán, poseen efectos hemodinámicos similares, aunque de distinta potencia, sobre los grupos de HTA. En condiciones normales, los efectos hemodinámicos del péptido natriurético auricular (PNA) no son modulados por los receptores de AII. La HTA potencia los efectos hemodinámicos del PNA por un efecto en el que intervienen los receptores de AII. / We have induced in Wistar rats two models of experimental hypertension: two kidney-one clip hypertension (2K-1C) and hypertension induced by chronic inhibition of nitric oxide production (L-NAME-induced hypertension). In both, angiotensin II (AII) participates in the development and maintenance of the hypertension. Chronic administration of losartan prevents the development of the L-NAME-induced hypertension, although it does not confer complete protection to the hemodynamic alterations that this hypertension causes. The AII receptor antagonists, saralasin and losartan, have similar hemodynamic effects on the hypertensive groups, although in different degrees. Moreover, the hemodynamic effects of the atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) under normal conditions are not modulated by the AII receptor. However, hypertension increases the hemodynamic effects of the ANP by an effect partially due to the AII receptors

Le stress oxydatif est impliqué dans l’expression du récepteur B1 des kinines (RB1) dans différents modèles de diabète et d'hypertension. Puisque l'angiotensine II (Ang II) et l'endothéline-1 (ET-1) sont des peptides prooxydants impliqués dans les maladies cardiovasculaires, leur contribution dans l'augmentation de l'expression du RB1 a été étudiée dans des cellules musculaires lisses vasculaires (CMLV). Le QRT-PCR et l’immunobuvardage de type Western ont été utilisés pour mesurer l’expression du RB1 dans des CMLV dérivées de la lignée A10 et de l’aorte de rats Sprague-Dawley. Cette étude montre que l’Ang II augmente l’expression du RB1 (ARNm et protéine) en fonction de la concentration et du temps (maximum 1 μM entre 3-6 h). Cette augmentation implique le récepteur AT1, la PI3K et le NF-κB, mais non le récepteur AT2 et ERK1/2. Aussi, le récepteur ETA de l’ET-1 est impliqué dans la réponse à l’Ang II à 6-8 h et non à 1-4 h. Par contre, l’ET-1 augmente l’expression du RB1 (maximum 2-4 h) via la stimulation des récepteurs ETA et ETB. L’augmentation du RB1 causée par l’Ang II et l’ET-1 est bloquée par les antioxydants (N-acétyl-cystéine et diphénylèneiodonium). Ces résultats suggèrent que l’Ang II induit le RB1 dans les CMLV par le récepteur AT1 dans la première phase, et par la libération d’ET-1 (majoritairement par ETA) dans la phase tardive, via le stress oxydatif et l’activation de la PI3K et du NF-κB. Ces résultats précisent le mécanisme impliqué dans la surexpression du RB1 ayant des effets néfastes dans le diabète et l'hypertension. / Oxidative stress is involved in the overexpression of kinin B1 receptor (B1R) in various models of diabetes and hypertension. Since angiotensin II (Ang II) and endothelin-1 (ET-1) are pro-oxidative peptides involved in cardiovascular diseases, their contribution in increasing the expression of B1R was examined in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC). QRT-PCR and Western blot analysis were used to measure the expression of B1R in VSMC derived from A10 cell line and the aorta of Sprague-Dawley rats. This study shows that Ang II increases the expression of B1R (mRNA and protein) in a concentration- and time-dependent manner (maximum 1 μM between 3-6 h). This increase involves AT1 receptor, PI3K and NF-κB, but not AT2 receptor and ERK1/2. Moreover, ETA receptor is involved in the effect of Ang II at 6-8 h but not at 1-4 h. However, ET-1 increases expression of B1R (maximum 2-4 h) via stimulation of ETA and ETB receptors. Ang II and ET-1-induced increase expression of B1R is blocked by antioxidants (N-acetyl-L-cysteine and diphenyleneiodonium). These results suggest that Ang II induces B1R in VSMC by AT1 receptor in the first phase and by releasing ET-1 (predominantly by ETA receptor) in the late phase, via oxidative stress and activation of PI3K and NF-κB. These results clarify the mechanism involved in the overexpression of B1R which has adverse effects in diabetes and hypertension.

Les cardiomyopathies sont une atteinte du myocarde qui se présente sous différentes formes telles que l’hypertrophie ou la dilatation des chambres cardiaques. Ces maladies du muscle cardiaque peuvent affecter la contraction cardiaque et dégénèrer en insuffisance cardiaque. Aussi, l’hypertrophie et l’insuffisance cardiaques sont associées à une augmentation de la morbidité et de la mortalité cardiovasculaires principalement due au remodelage électrique et à la survenue d’arythmies. De plus, le retard de repolarisation, associé à une diminution des courants K+, est un des troubles cardiaques les plus couramment observés lors de ces pathologies cardiaques. L’angiotensine II (Ang II) et la norépinéphrine, principaux effecteurs du système rénine-angiotensine et du système nerveux sympathique, peuvent tous deux agir directement sur le cœur en liant les récepteurs de type 1 de l’Ang II (AT1) et les récepteurs adrénergiques. L’Ang II et la norépinéphrine sont associées au développement des cardiomyopathies, au remodelage cardiaque et à une prolongation de la durée du potentiel d'action cardiaque. Deux modèles de souris trangéniques surexprimant spécifiquement au niveau cardiaque les récepteurs AT1 (la souris AT1R) ou les récepteurs α1B-adrénergiques (la souris α1B-AR) ont été créés afin d’étudier les effets de ces stimuli sur le cœur. Ces deux modèles de souris développent du remodelage cardiaque, soit de l’hypertrophie chez les souris AT1R (cardiomyopathie hypertrophique) ou une dilatation des chambres cardiaques chez les souris α1B-AR (cardiomyopathie dilatée). Au stade avancé de la maladie, les deux modèles de souris transgéniques sont insuffisants cardiaques. Des données préliminaires ont aussi montré que les souris AT1R et les souris α1B-AR ont une incidence accrue d’arythmies ainsi qu’une prolongation de la durée du potentiel d’action. De plus, ces deux modèles de souris meurent subitement et prématurément, ce qui laissait croire qu’en conditions pathologiques, l’activation des récepteurs AT1 ou des récepteurs α1B-adrénergiques pouvait affecter la repolarisation et causer l’apparition d’arythmies graves. Ainsi, l’objectif de ce projet était de caractériser la repolarisation ventriculaire des souris AT1R et α1B-AR afin de déterminer si la suractivation chronique des récepteurs de l’Ang II ou des récepteurs 1B-adrénergiques pouvait affecter directement les paramètres électrophysiologiques et induire des arythmies. Les résultats obtenus ont révélé que les souris AT1R et les souris α1B-AR présentent un retard de repolarisation (prolongation de l’intervalle QTc (dans l’électrocardiogramme) et de la durée du potentiel d’action) causé par une diminution des courants K+ (responsables de la repolarisation). Aussi, l’incidence d’arythmies est plus importante dans les deux groupes de souris transgéniques comparativement à leur contrôle respectif. Finalement, nous avons vu que les troubles de repolarisation se produisent également dans les groupes de souris transgéniques plus jeunes, avant l’apparition de l’hypertrophie ou du remodelage cardiaque. Ces résultats suggèrent qu’en conditions pathologiques, l’activation chronique des récepteurs de l’Ang II ou des récepteurs α1B-adrénergiques peut favoriser le développement d’arythmies en retardant la repolarisation et cela, indépendamment de changements hémodynamiques ou du remodelage cardiaque. Les résultats de ces études pourront servir à comprendre les mécanismes responsables du développement d’arythmies cardiaques lors du remodelage et de l’insuffisance cardiaques et pourraient aider à optimiser le choix des traitements chez ces patients atteints ou à risque de développer de l’hypertrophie ou du remodelage cardiaque. / Cardiomyopathies are diseases of the myocardium that may have several causes and comes in different forms such as cardiac hypertrophy or dilatation. Cardiomyopathies are often progressive diseases that cause a loss of heart function and lead to heart failure. In addition, hypertrophy and heart failure are associated with increased morbidity and mortality mainly due to electrical remodeling and arrhythmias. Delayed repolarization associated with a decrease of K+ currents, is one of the most common cardiac disorders associated with cardiac remodeling. Angiotensin II (Ang II) and norepinephrine, the main effectors of the renin-angiotensin system and of the sympathetic nervous system, can both act directly on the heart by binding the Ang II type 1 receptor (AT1) and the adrenergic receptors. Ang II and norepinephrine are both associated with the development of cardiomyopathy, cardiac remodeling and prolongation of action potential duration. Two transgenic mouse models overexpressing the AT1 receptors (AT1R mouse) or the α1B-adrenergic receptors (α1B-AR mouse) specifically in the myocardium have been developed to study the effects of these stimuli on the heart. These two mouse models developed cardiac remodeling such as hypertrophy for the AT1R mice (hypertrophic cardiomyopathy) and dilatation of cardiac chambers for α1B-AR mice (dilated cardiomyopathy). In advanced stage of the disease, the two transgenic mouse models exhibit heart failure. Preliminary data showed that both transgenic mouse models experience cardiac arrhythmias and have a prolongation of the action potential duration. Moreover, AT1R and α1B-AR mice die suddenly and prematurely, which suggested that in pathological conditions, activation of the Ang II type 1 receptor or of the α1B-adrenergic receptor may affect repolarization and can be responsible for the incidence of serious arrhythmias causing the death of these mice. Base on these informations, the objective of this project was to characterize the ventricular repolarization in AT1R and α1B-AR mice to see if an increase of the activation of the Ang II type 1 receptor or of the 1B-adrenergic receptor could directly affect electrophysiological parameters and lead to severe arrhythmias. Results showed that both AT1R mice and α1B-AR mice have a delayed ventricular repolarization (prolongation of the QTc interval and action potential duration) caused by a decrease in outward K+ currents (responsible for the repolarization). In addition, the incidence of arrhythmias is higher in both groups of transgenic mice compared with their respective control. Finally, we have seen that repolarization disorders also occur in younger mice of both models of cardiomyopathy that do not present sign of hypertrophy and cardiac remodeling. These results suggest that under pathological conditions, the overactivation of the Ang II type 1 receptor or of the α1B-adrenergic receptor can directly promote the development of arrhythmias by delaying the repolarization independently of hemodynamic variations and pathological phenotype. The results of these studies can be useful to understand the mechanisms underlying the development of cardiac arrhythmias in patients suffering from cardiac hypertrophy or failure and may help to choose the best treatment for these patients.

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INTRODUÇÃO: Capítulo 1. A Insuficiência Cardíaca (IC) é acompanhada de uma hiperativação simpática e do sistema renina-angiotensina (SRA). As ações deletérias do SRA são atribuídas à Angiotensina II (AngII), mas a Angiotensina-(1- 7) (Ang-(1-7)), um metabólito da AngII, demonstra efeitos cardiovasculares benéficos, contrários aos da AngII. O conceito tradicional é de que as concentrações sistêmicas mediam as respostas do SRA, mas evidências emergem acerca da importância funcional do SRA local. Nesse estudo, estudou-se o SRA circulante e muscular esquelético na IC, testando-se a hipótese de que as alterações seriam diferentes nesses dois territórios, e que o treinamento físico corrigiria essas alterações. Capítulo 2. A IC é uma síndrome sistêmica, onde fatores neuroendócrinos, como a AngII, podem levar a alterações periféricas. Na musculatura esquelética, a hiperatividade do sistema ubiquitina-proteassoma (SUP) é um dos elementos que compõem um quadro de miopatia, aumentando o catabolismo muscular em direção à atrofia, e contribuindo com o agravamento da síndrome. O treinamento físico normaliza o SUP e reduz as concentrações plasmáticas de AngII na IC. Dessa forma, testamos a hipótese de que a redução do SUP mediada pelo treinamento físico na IC depende da queda das concentrações plasmáticas de AngII. MÉTODOS: Capítulo 1. Ratos Wistar, machos, foram induzidos à IC por ligadura da artéria coronária descendente anterior, ou cirurgia fictícia (Sham, SH). Os animais foram divididos em grupos mantidos sedentários, SD (SHSD, n=10 e ICSD, n=12) ou submetidos ao treinamento físico, TR (SHTR, n=10, ICTR, n=12). O treinamento físico foi realizado em esteira, a 60% do consumo máximo de oxigênio, 5 dias por semana durante 8 semanas, quando foram sacrificados para coleta de sangue e músculos (sóleo e plantar). As angiotensinas circulantes e musculares foram dosadas por HPLC. A atividade sérica e muscular da ECA e da ECA2 por fluorimetria. Os receptores AT1 e AT2 foram analisados por expressão gênica (RT-PCR) e proteica (Western Blot), e o receptor Mas por expressão gênica. Capítulo 2. Ratos Wistar, machos, foram induzidos à IC por ligadura da artéria coronária descendente anterior, ou cirurgia fictícia (Sham). Após 4 semanas, os animais Sham (n=10) constituíram um grupo sedentário saudável (SHSD) e os animais com IC (n=30) foram igualmente alocados em 3 grupos: um mantido sedentário (ICSD), um treinado (ICTR) e um treinado com as concentrações plasmáticas de AngII nos mesmos níveis dos animais do grupo ICSD (ICTRAII), mantidas através de minipump osmótica. O treinamento físico foi realizado em esteira, a 60% do consumo máximo de oxigênio, 5 dias por semana durante 8 semanas, quando foram sacrificados para coleta de sangue e músculos (sóleo e plantar). As angiotensinas circulantes e musculares foram dosadas por HPLC. A expressão gênica das enzimas ligases E3?, MuRF e Atrogin foi realizada por RT-PCR. O receptor AT1, as proteínas ubiquitinadas e as proteínas carboniladas (Oxyblot) foram quantificadas por Western Blot. A atividade da porção 26S do proteassoma foi determinada por fluorimetria. RESULTADOS: Capítulo 1. Na circulação, a atividade da ECA2 estava reduzida na IC, e o treinamento físico reduziu a atividade da ECA e restaurou a atividade da ECA2 esses animais. A concentração de AngII reduziu nos grupos treinados, e a razão Ang-(1-7)/AngII aumentou no grupo ICTR. Nos músculos, não houve alteração em relação à atividade ou expressão proteica da ECA ou da ECA2, mas a concentração de AngII estava aumentada com a IC, e normalizou com o treinamento físico. A concentração de Ang-(1-7) aumentou no músculo plantar do grupo ICTR, e a razão Ang-(1-7)/AngII apresentou forte tendência de aumento no músculo sóleo dos animais treinados. No músculo sóleo, o AT1 estava aumentado nos animais com IC, e o treinamento físico normalizou a expressão gênica e proteica desse receptor, e também aumentou a expressão gênica do receptor Mas nos grupos treinados. No músculo plantar, normalizou a expressão gênica do receptor Mas, sem alterar o AT1. Não foram encontradas diferenças significativas na expressão do receptor AT2 nos músculos estudados. Capítulo 2. O treinamento físico promoveu uma melhora da capacidade de exercício em ambos os grupos treinados. A AngII aumentou nos músculos dos animais com IC, e o treinamento físico normalizou esses valores. Na circulação, como se esperava, a AngII diminuiu apenas no grupo ICTR. A expressão do receptor AT1 aumentou no músculo sóleo com a IC e normalizou com o treinamento físico, sem diferenças entre grupos no músculo plantar. Em relação à expressão gênica das E3 ligases e na quantidade de proteínas ubiquitinadas e carboniladas, não houve diferenças entre os grupos no músculo sóleo. Já no músculo plantar, a expressão do atrogin estava aumentada nos animais com IC, e o treinamento físico reduziu a expressão tanto da atrogin quanto da E3? e da MuRF. Essa melhora foi prejudicada com a infusão de AngII. Refletindo esse cenário, a quantidade de proteínas ubiquitinadas e carboniladas estavam aumentadas na IC e reduziram com o treinamento físico, e a infusão de AngII atenuou a redução das proteínas ubiquitinadas e aboliu a diminuição das oxidadas. A atividade do proteassoma aumentou em ambos os músculos de animais com IC, e o treinamento físico reduziu a atividade nos animais treinados, sendo significativamente menor no grupo ICTRAII. CONCLUSÕES: Capítulo 1. Em modelo de IC crônica, os níveis de AngII estão aumentados na musculatura esquelética, mas não na circulação. O treinamento físico reduz os níveis plasmáticos de AngII na circulação e normaliza nos músculos. Essa redução é acompanhada de um aumento dos níveis de Ang-(1-7) ou da melhora na razão Ang-(1-7)/AngII em ambos os territórios, indicando uma atenuação da hiperativação do SRA na IC com o treinamento físico. Capítulo 2. Em modelo isquêmico de IC crônica em ratos, há uma diferença no perfil do SUP no músculo sóleo e no músculo plantar. O treinamento físico reduz a atividade do SUP e, ao menos no músculo plantar, essa melhora parece ser dependente da redução dos níveis de AngII / INTRODUCTION: Chapter 1. Heart Failure (IC) is a syndrome accompanied by a sympathetic and renin-angiotensin system (RAS) hyperactivity. The deleterious actions of RAS are attributed to Angiotensin II (AngII), but Angiotensin-(1-7) (Ang-(1- 7)), a metabolite of AngII, shows benefic cardiovascular effects opposing to AngII. The traditional concept states that the systemic concentrations are responsible for RAS actions, although increasingly evidence emerge about the functional role of local RAS. The working hypothesis was that the RAS alterations, if any, would be different on this two territories of heart failure rats, and the exercise training should correct this alterations. Chapter 2. Heart failure is a systemic syndrome in which neuroendocrine factors, such as angiotensin II (AngII), can lead to peripheral damage. In skeletal muscle, the hyperactivity of ubiquitin-proteasome system (SUP) is one of the elements composing the myopathy framework, elevating the catabolism toward atrophy, and contributing to the worsening of the syndrome. Exercise training normalizes SUP and reduces plasmatic concentrations of AngII. On this way, we tested the hypothesis that exercise training-mediated SUP deactivation is dependent on plasma falls of AngII. METHODS: Chapter 1. Male Wistar rats underwent left coronary artery ligation or Sham (SH) operation. They were allocated in sedentary, SD (SHSD, n=10 and ICSD, n=12) or trained, TR (SHTR, n=10 and ICTR, n=12) groups. The exercise training consisted in treadmill running, at 60% of maximal oxygen uptake, 5 days per week, during 8 weeks, when they were killed for blood and skeletal muscle (soleus and plantaris) collection. Angiotensin\'s concentrations were determined by HPLC. ACE and ACE2 activity were accessed in serum and muscles by fluorimetry, and by protein expression (Western Blot) in the muscles. AT1 and AT2 receptors were quantified by protein and gene (RT-PCR) expression, and Mas receptor by gene expression. Chapter 2. Male Wistar rats underwent left coronary artery ligation or Sham operation. After 4 weeks, Sham operated rats (n=10) constituted a healthy, sedentary control group (SHSD), and the heart failure rats (n=30) were equally allocated into 3 groups: sedentary (ICSD), trained (ICTR) and trained with plasma AngII at the same level of sedentary, heart failure rats (ICTRAII), kept by an osmotic minipump. The exercise training consisted in treadmill running, at 55% of maximal oxygen uptake, 5 days per week, during 8 weeks, when they were killed for blood and skeletal muscle (soleus and plantaris) collection. AngII concentrations were determined by HPLC. Gene expression of E3?, MuRF e Atrogin were performed by PR-PCR. AT1 receptor, ubiquitinated and carbonylated (oxyblot) proteins were quantified by Western Blot. Proteasomal 26S activity were determined by fluorimetry. RESULTS: Chapter 1. Heart failure reduced circulating ACE2 activity, and exercise training reduced ACE and normalized ACE2 activity in this rats. AngII concentration reduced in both trained groups, increasing Ang-(1-7)/AngII ratio on ICTR group. The studied skeletal muscles did not change activity or protein expression of ACE and ACE2, although the AngII, which was increased with heart failure, has normalized with exercise training. Absolute Ang-(1-7) concentration increased in plantaris muscle, and a strong tendency of significant increase was shown in soleus muscle of trained rats. Also in the soleus, AT1 receptor raised with heart failure, and the exercise training normalized the gene as well as protein expression of this receptor, also increasing gene expression of Mas receptor of trained groups. In plantaris muscle, exercise normalized Mas receptor in ICTR, without influencing AT1 receptor. No significant changes among groups were found in relation to AT2 receptor of the studied muscles. Chapter 2. Exercise training promoted an improvement of exercise capacity in trained groups. AngII raised in skeletal muscle of rats with heart failure, and exercise training normalized this. Circulating AngII, as expected, reduced only in ICTR group. AT1 receptor expression increased in soleus muscle of heart failure, and normalized after exercise in trained rats, without any difference among groups in plantaris muscle. Regarding E3 ligases gene expression and quantity of ubiquitinated and carbonylated proteins, there were no differences among groups in soleus muscle. Nevertheless, in plantaris muscle, atrogin expression was increased in heart failure rats, and exercise training reduced atrogin, as well as E3alpha and MuRF expression. These improvements were impaired by AngII infusion. Mirroring this scenario, the amount of ubiquitinated and carbonylated proteins increased with heart failure and reduced with exercise training, but AngII infusion lessen the reduction of ubiquitinated proteins and completely blunted the effects of exercise on carbonylated proteins. Proteasome 26S activity was increased in both muscles of heart failure rats, and exercise avoided this increase in trained rats, being significantly reduced in ICTRAII. CONCLUSIONS: Chapter 1. In a model of chronic heart failure rats, AngII levels are increased in skeletal muscle, but not in the circulation. The exercise training reduces plasma and normalizes skeletal muscle concentration of AngII. This reduction is accompanied by an increase Ang-(1-7) levels, or improvements of Ang-(1-7)/AngII ratio in both systemic and local territories, indicating an attenuation of RAS hyperactivity with exercise training in heart failure rats. Chapter 2. In a model of chronic heart failure rats, there is a difference on SUP activation profile in soleus and plantaris muscle. Exercise training reduces SUP activity and, in plantaris muscle, this amelioration seems to be, at least in part, dependent of a reduction in AngII levels