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  • About
  • The Global ETD Search service is a free service for researchers to find electronic theses and dissertations. This service is provided by the Networked Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations.
    Our metadata is collected from universities around the world. If you manage a university/consortium/country archive and want to be added, details can be found on the NDLTD website.
341

Bose-Einstein condensation in microgravity

Lewoczko-Adamczyk, Wojciech 16 July 2009 (has links)
Ultra-kalte atomare Gase werden in zahlreichen Laboren weltweit untersucht und finden unter anderem Anwendung in Atomuhren und in Atominterferometer. Die Einsatzgebiete erstrecken sich von der Geodäsie über die Metrologie bis hin zu wichtigen Fragestellungen der Fundamentalphysik, wie z.B. Tests des Äquivalenzprinzips. Doch die beispiellose Messgenauigkeit ist durch die irdische Gravitation eingeschränkt. Zum einen verzerrt die Schwerkraft das Fallenpotential und macht damit die Reduktion der atomaren Energie unter einem bestimmten Limit unmöglich. Zum anderen werden die aus einer Falle frei gelassenen Teilchen durch die Erdanziehung beschleunigt und so ist deren Beobachtungszeit begrenzt. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit werden die Ergebnisse des Projektes QUANTUS (Quantengase Unter Schwerelosigkeit) dargestellt. Auf dem Weg zur Implementierung eines Quantengasexperimentes im Weltraum wurde innerhalb einer deutschlandweiten Zusammenarbeit eine kompakte, portable und mechanisch stabile Apparatur zur Erzeugung und Untersuchung eines Bose-Einstein-Kondensats (BEC) unter Schwerelosigkeit im Fallturm Bremen entwickelt. Sowohl die Abbremsbeschleunigung von bis zu 50 g als auch das begrenzte Volumen der Fallkapsel stellen hohe Ansprüche an die mechanische Stabilität und die Miniaturisierung von optischen und elektronischen Komponenten. Der Aufbau besteht aus einer im ultra-hoch Vakuum geschlossenen magnetischen Mikrofalle (Atomchip) und einem kompakten auf DFB-Dioden basierenden Lasersystem. Mit diesem Aufbau ließ sich das erste BEC unter Schwerelosigkeit realisieren und nach 1 Sekunde freier Expansion zu beobachten. Weder die schwache Krümmung des Fallenpotentials noch die lange Beobachtungszeit würden in einem erdgebundenen Experiment realisierbar. Die erfolgreiche Umsetzung des Projektes eröffnet ein innovatives Forschungsgebiet - degenerierte Quantengase bei ultratiefen Temperaturen im pK-Bereich, mit großen freien Evolutions- und Beobachtungszeiten von mehreren Sekunden. / Recently, cooling, trapping and manipulation of neutral atoms and ions has become an especially active field of quantum physics. The main motivation for the cooling is to reduce motional effects in high precision measurements including spectroscopy, atomic clocks and matter interferometry. The spectrum of applications of these quantum devices cover a broad area from geodesy, through metrology up to addressing the fundamental questions in physics, as for instance testing the Einstein’s equivalence principle. However, the unprecedented precision of the quantum sensors is limited in terrestial laboratories. Freezing atomic motion can be nowadays put to the limit at which gravity becomes a major perturbation in a system. Gravity can significantly affect and disturb the trapping potential. This limits the use of ultra-shallow traps for low energetic particles. Moreover, free particles are accelerated by gravitational force, which substantially limits the observation time. Targeting the long-term goal of studying cold quantum gases on a space platform, we currently focus on the implementation of a Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC) experiment under microgravity conditions at the drop tower in Bremen. Special challenges in the construction of the experimental setup are posed by a low volume of the drop capsule as well as critical decelerations up to 50g during recapture at the bottom of the tower. All mechanical and electronic components were thus been designed with stringent demands on miniaturization and mechanical stability. This work reports on the observation of a BEC released from an ultra-shallow magnetic potential and freely expanding for one second. Both, the low trapping frequency and long expansion time are not achievable in any earthbound laboratory. This unprecedented time of free evolution leads to new possibilities for the study of BEC-coherence. It can also be applied to enhance the sensitivity of inertial quantum sensors based on ultra-cold matter waves.
342

Bestimmung der atomaren Struktur ultradünner Schichten auf Festkörperoberflächen mittels streifender Atomstreuung

Seifert, Jan 05 September 2012 (has links)
In dieser Dissertation wird die Struktur von ultradünnen Schichten auf atomar ebenen Festkörperoberflächen durch die streifende Streuung von Atomen und Molekülen untersucht. Dabei werden Atome mit kinetischen Energien im keV-Bereich unter flachem Einfallswinkel von etwa 1° an der Oberfläche gestreut und mit einem ortsauflösenden Detektor nachgewiesen. Bei hinreichend kleinen Projektilenergien werden Beugungserscheinungen beobachtet, die durch Interferenz von Materiewellen erklärt werden können. Die Auswertung der Intensität der Beugungsreflexe ermöglicht die Bestimmung von Atompositionen. Wird die Probe azimutal verdreht, ändern sich die seitliche Ablenkung der Projektile und die Zahl der während des Streuprozesses an der Oberfläche emittierten Elektronen. Dies wird zur Identifikation von Richtungen mit dichtgepackten Atomketten genutzt und der Vergleich mit Trajektoriensimulationen gestattet Rückschlüsse auf die Atompositionen der obersten Lage. Beim System einer Atomlage SiO2/Mo(112) kann durch mehrere Messmethoden eindeutig zwischen zwei konkurrierenden Strukturmodellen unterschieden und die Atompositionen eines Modells mit hoher Genauigkeit bestätigt werden. Die Adsorption von Sauerstoff auf einer Mo(112)-Oberfläche wird detailliert studiert und für mehrere Überstrukturphasen werden Modelle aufgestellt. Für V2O3/Au(111) kann durch Triangulationsmessungen eine geringfügige Modifikation eines existierenden Strukturmodells abgeleitet werden. Auf einer Cu(001)-Oberfläche werden dünne, kristalline FeO und Fe3O4-Schichten präpariert und untersucht. Die Inkommensurabilität der quadratischen Substrat- und der hexagonalen Adsorbateinheitszelle führt zu komplexen LEED-Mustern, die durch Mehrfachstreuung erklärt werden können. Dies ist auch der Schlüssel zur Erklärung der Beugungsbilder bei Adsorbatstrukturen der chiralen Aminosäure Alanin auf Cu(110) und damit die Grundlage für die Aufstellung eines Strukturmodells für dieses System. / In this thesis the structure of ultrathin films on atomically flat crystal surfaces is investigated by means of grazing scattering of atoms and molecules. Atoms with kinetic energies in the keV regime are scattered from the surface under small angles of incidence of approximately 1° and are detected by means of a position-sensitive detector. For sufficiently small projectile energies diffraction phenomena are observed which can be explained by interference of matter waves. The analysis of the intensities of diffraction spots makes it possible to determine atomic positions. When the sample is rotated azimuthally the deflection of projectiles and the number of emitted electrons during the scattering process at the surface varies. This is used to identify directions with close-packed strings of atoms and comparison with trajectory simulations gives information on atomic positions of the topmost layer. For the system of one atomic layer of SiO2/Mo(112) it can be unambiguously distinguished between two competing structural models. The positions of atoms of one model are confirmed with high accuracy by the use of several methods. The adsorption of oxygen on a Mo(112) surface is studied in detail and for several superstructure phases models are proposed. For the surface of a V2O3 layer on a Au(111) substrate a slight modification of an existing structural model is derived by means of triangulation measurements. On a Cu(001) surface thin crystalline FeO and Fe3O4 films are grown and studied. The incommensurability of the quadratic substrate with the hexagonal adsorbate surface unit cell gives rise to complex pattern for low energy electron diffraction, which can be explained by multiple scattering. This is also the key to the explanation of diffraction images for adsorbate structures of the chiral amino acid alanine on Cu(110) and the basis for developing a structural model for this system.
343

Strukturuntersuchungen an Oxidkristalloberflächen mittels der streifenden Streuung schneller Atome

Meyer, Eric 19 February 2016 (has links)
Die Dissertation beschäftigt sich mit der Bestimmung der Oberflächenstruktur von Oxidkristallen. Die strukturelle Charakterisierung fand mittels der streifenden Streuung schneller Atome und Moleküle statt. Bei dieser Methode werden Atome oder Moleküle mit Energien im keV Bereich unter streifendem Einfall an einer Einkristalloberfläche gestreut. Sie werden unter axialer Gitterführung entlang niedrig-indizierter Kristallrichtungen gestreut und können mittels eines ortsauflösenden Detektors nachgewiesen werden. Bei hinreichend kleinen Energien werden Beugungserscheinungen beobachtet, die auf die Interferenz von Materiewellen zurückzuführen sind. Durch eine Analyse der Streuverteilung der Projektile, können Rückschlüsse auf das Wechselwirkungspotential und somit auf die Struktur der Oberfläche gezogen werden. Durch die Untersuchung der (100)- und (001)-Fläche konnten alle Gitterparameter des Ga2O3-Systems bestimmt werden. Die Messungen an der (100) Fläche lieferten Aufschluss über die Terminierung, für die ein alternatives Strukturmodell entwickelt wurde. Aufbauend auf der Entdeckung der longitudinalen Kohärenz bei der streifenden Streuung von Atomen an der Al2O3(11-20)-Fläche konnten die vorhandenen Messungen erweitert und ein effektives Auswerteprogramm entwickelt werden. Bei Messungen an der Al2O3(0001)-Fläche wurde ebenfalls das Auftreten einer longitudinalen Kohärenz beobachtet. Für beide Flächen wurden die jeweiligen Gitterparameter mit höchster Präzision bestimmt und die Intensitätsverteilung der Streubilder durch ein einfaches Modell beschrieben. Erstmalig in dieser Arbeitsgruppe konnte ein Wechselwirkungspotential für die Streuung von H2-Molekülen an einer KCl(001)-Fläche abgeleitet werden. Der im Experiment beobachtete drastische Unterschied in der Intensitätsmodulation der Beugungsreflexe mit der senkrecht-de Broglie Wellenlänge für gestreute Atome und Moleküle konnte mit Simulationen unter Verwendung des abgeleiteten Wechselwirkungspotentials erklärt werden. / This PhD thesis deals with the investigation of surface structures of oxide crystal surfaces. Therefore, the method of grazing scattering of fast atoms and molecules was applied. The projectiles are scattered with energies in the keV range under grazing incidence from a single crystal surface along low-indexed surface directions. They are recorded with a position sensitive detector. For sufficiently low energies diffraction patterns are observed that can be understood in terms of the interference of matter waves. By analyzing these patterns the interaction potential and in this manner the surface structure can be derived. The investigation of the (100) and (001) surface led to a determination of all lattice parameters of the Ga2O3 system so that it was possible to determine the termination of the (100) surface. An alternative structural model for this termination could be derived. After the discovery of a longithudinal coherence for the grazing scattering process on a Al2O3(11-20) surface, the existing measurements were expanded and an effective evaluation procedure was developed. In measurements on the Al2O3(0001) surface the longithudinal coherence was observed as well. For both surfaces, the lattice parameters could be determined with very high accuracy and the intensity distribution was described by a very simple model. For the first time in this working group the interaction potential for the scattering of H2 molecules from a KCl(001) surface could be deviated. The observed difference in the intensity distribution in dependence of the perpendicular de Broglie wavelength for scattered atoms and molecules could be explained by applying simulations using the deviated interaction potential.
344

Synthèse d'acides carboxyliques à partir de substrats oxygénés, de CO2 et de H2 / Synthesis of Carboxylic Acids from Oxygenated Substrates, CO2 and H2

Solmi, Matilde Valeria 17 December 2018 (has links)
Les acides carboxyliques aliphatiques sont utilisés dans de nombreux secteurs industriels et leur importance économique augmente. Ils sont actuellement produits en grande quantité, grâce à des procédés utilisant le C0 qui est principalement non- renouvelable. L'anhydride carbonique est une molécule potentiellement écologique, renouvelable et abondante. Cette thèse décrit l'étude et l'optimisation d'un système catalytique homogène de Rh, utilisé pour produire des acides carboxyliques aliphatiques à partir de substrats oxygénés, C02 et H2. Le système consiste en un précurseur de Rh, un additif à base d'iodure et un ligand PPh3, fonctionnant dans un réacteur discontinu sous une pression de C02 et de H2. Les conditions de réaction ont été optimisées pour chaque classe de substrats étudiés: alcools primaires et secondaires, cétones, aldéhydes et époxydes. 30 molécules différentes ont été converties en acides carboxyliques, conduisant à des rendements jusqu'à 80%. En plus, le système a été étudié avec une approche de « Design of Experiment », ce qui a permis d'obtenir des informations supplémentaires concernant les paramètres étudiés. Le mécanisme de réaction et les espèces catalytiques actives ont été étudiés par différentes manipulations comme des réactions compétitives, des expériences de RMN et l'utilisation de molécules marquées. La réaction est composée de transformations non catalytiques et de deux étapes catalytiques. La réaction se déroule à travers une réaction de reverse Water Gas Shift (rWGSR) transformant le C02 et l'H2 en C0 et H20, qui sont consommés dans l'hydrocarboxylation suivante de l'alcène formé in situ pour livrer l'acide carboxylique. Le système catalytique est similaire aux catalyseurs traditionnels à base du Rh pour les réactions de carbonylation et de Water Gas Shift. Le PPh3 est nécessaire pour fournir des ligands supplémentaires, permettant au catalyseur de fonctionner avec une quantité minimale de ligand toxique de C0. En plus, un système catalytique hétérogène a été étudié pour la même réaction. « Single Atom Catalysts » (SACs) reçoit beaucoup plus d'attention que les solutions catalytiques, car il présente à la fois les avantages des catalyseurs homogènes (sélectivité, haute activité) et des catalyseurs hétérogènes (séparation et recyclage faciles). Des atomes de rhodium simples dispersés sur du graphène dopé avec l'N ont été synthétisés et caractérisés, obtenant des informations concernant la structure chimique et physique du matériau. Finalement, ils ont été testés ainsi que les catalyseurs pour l'activation du C02, la production d'acides carboxyliques, les réactions d'hydrogénation et d'hydrogénolyse / Aliphatic carboxylic acids are used in many industrial sectors and their importance from an economical point of view is increasing. They are currently produced in large quantities, through processes exploiting the mostly non-renewable C0 as C1 synthon. Carbon dioxide is a potential environmentally friendly, renewable and abundant C1 building block. The aim of this work is to provide a catalytic protocol converting C02, H2 and oxygenated substrates to obtain useful chemicals, like carboxylic acids.To this end a homogeneous catalytic Rh system, used to produce aliphatic carboxylic acids starting from oxygenated substrates, C02 and H2 was investigated and optimized. The system consists of a Rh precursor, iodide additive and PPh3 ligand working in a batch reactor under C02 and H2 pressure. The reaction conditions were optimized for each class of investigated substrates: primary alcohols, secondary alcohols, ketones, aldehydes and epoxides. The reaction scope was investigated and 30 different molecules were converted into carboxylic acids, leading to yields of up to 80%. ln addition, the system was studied using a Design of Experiment approach, obtaining additional information regarding the studied parameters.The reaction mechanism and the catalytically active species were studied, by different experiments like competitive reactions, NMR and labelling experiments. This investigation resulted in a deeper knowledge of the reaction pathway, composed of some non-catalytic transformations and two catalytic steps. The reaction proceeds through a reverse Water Gas Shift Reaction (rWGSR) transforming C02 and H2 into C0 and H20, which are consumed in the following hydrocarboxylation of the in-situ formed alkene to give the final carboxylic acid product. The catalytic system is similar to traditional Rh carbonylation and Water Gas Shift catalysts. The PPh3 is needed to supply additional ligands allowing the catalyst to work in reaction conditions with a minimal amount of toxic C0 ligand. ln addition, a heterogeneous catalytic system was investigated for the same reaction. Single atom catalysts (SACs) are receiving much attention as catalytic solution, since they have both the advantages of homogeneous (selectivity, high activity) and heterogeneous (easy separation and recycling) catalysts. Single Rh atoms dispersed on N-doped graphene were synthesized and characterized, obtaining information regarding the chemical and physical structure of the material. Eventually, they were tested as catalysts for C02 activation, carboxylic acid production, hydrogenation and hydrogenolysis reactions / Aliphatische Carbonsauren werden in vielen industriellen Bereichen verwendet und ihre wirtschaftliche Bedeutung nimmt zu. Sie werden derzeit in gror.en Mengen hergestellt, indem das meistens nicht erneuerbare Kohlenmonoxid als C1-Synthon genutzt wird. Kohlendioxid ist ein potenziell umweltfreundlicher, erneuerbarer und abundanter C1-Baustein. Das Ziel dieser Arbeit ist die Entwicklung eines Protokolls zur katalytischen Umwandlung von C02, H2 und sauerstoffhaltigen Substraten, um nützliche Chemikalien, wie Carbonsauren zu erhalten. Zu diesem Zweck wird ein homogenes Rh-Katalysatorsystems zur Herstellung aliphatischer Carbonsauren aus sauerstoffhaltigen Substraten, C02 und H2 untersucht und optimiert. Das System besteht aus Rh-Prakursor, lodid-Additiv und PPh3 als Ligand, die in einem Batchreaktor unter C02 und H2 eingesetzt werden. Die Reaktionsbedingungen wurden für folgende Substratklassen optimiert: primare Alkohole, sekundare Alkohole, Ketone, Aldehyde und Epoxide. Es wurden insgesamt 30 verschiedene Substrate mit Ausbeuten bis zu 80% zu Carbonsauren umgesetzt. Darüber hinaus wurde das System mit einem ,,Statistische Versuchsplanung"-Ansatz untersucht, um zusatzliche lnformationen zu den untersuchten Parametern zu erhalten. Mechanismus und katalytisch aktive Spezies wurden durch verschiedene Experimente wie Konkurrenzreaktionen, NMR- und Markierungsexperimenten untersucht. Dies erschloss den Reaktionsweg, der aus mehreren nicht-katalytischen Transformationen und zwei katalytischen Schritten besteht. Die Reaktion verlauft durch eine ,,reverse Wassergas-Shift-Reaktion" (rWGSR), die C02 und H2 in C0 und H20 umwandelt. Diese werden wiederum bei der nachfolgenden Hydrocarboxylierung des in-situ gebildeten Alkens unter Bildung der Carbonsaure verbraucht. Das katalytische System ahnelt herkômmlichen Rh-Carbonylierungs- und WGSR-Katalysatoren. PPh3 fungiert als zusatzlicher Ligand, der es dem Katalysator ermôglicht unter den gleichen Reaktionsbedingungen mit minimaler Menge toxischen C0 als Liganden zu arbeiten. Zusatzlich wurde ein heterogenes katalytisches System für die gleiche Reaktion untersucht. ,,Single atom catalysts" (SACs) erhalten gror.e Aufmerksamkeit als neue Katalysatorklasse. Sie kombinieren die Selektivitat und hohe Aktivitat homogener und die einfache Abtrennung und Recycling heterogener Katalysatoren Verschiedene Katalysatoren aus auf N-dotiertem Graphen dispergierten Rh-Atomen, wurden synthetisiert und charakterisiert. Dadurch wurden lnformationen über die chemische und physikalische Struktur des Materials gewonnen und als Katalysatoren für C02-Aktivierung, Carbonsauresythese, Hydrierung und Hydrogenolyse getestet
345

Bose-Einstein-Kondensate in Mikrochip-Fallen

Hommelhoff, Peter 19 December 2002 (has links) (PDF)
In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird die erstmalige Erzeugung eines<br />Bose-Einstein-Kondensates in einer Mikrochip-Falle beschrieben; dies ist eine Magnetfalle für Neutralatome, die mithilfe stromführender Leiterbahnen auf einem Chipsubstrat gebildet wird. Die Eigenschaften dieser Chipfallen, speziell die hohen<br />Magnetfeldgradienten und -krümmungen, haben es ermöglicht, die<br />Bose-Einstein-Kondensation in weniger als einer Sekunde Verdampfungskühlzeit zu erreichen, was rund eine Größenordnung schneller als in bisher verwendeten Magnetfallen ist<br />und ein Faktor drei schneller als auf dem bisher schnellsten Weg in einer optischen Dipolfalle. Damit verbunden sind die Ansprüche<br />an den experimentellen Aufbau, insbesondere das Vakuumsystem und<br />den Laseraufbau, deutlich gesunken.<br /><br />Weiterhin wird der zerstörungsfreie Transport des Bose-Einstein-Kondensats entlang der Chipoberfläche über makroskopische Distanzen demonstriert wie auch erstmalig die Aufspaltung eines Kondensates in zwei getrennte Kondensate mit rein magnetischen Mitteln.<br /><br />Diese Resultate, nämlich kohärente Materie in einem integrierten<br />atomoptischen System manipulieren zu können, lassen hoffen, daß in<br />naher Zukunft Anwendungen wie Atominterferometrie, Untersuchungen<br />zu niederdimensionalen Quantengasen und<br />Quanteninformationsverarbeitung 'on-chip' verwirklicht werden<br />können.
346

Soft X-ray Emission Spectroscopy of Liquids and Lithium Battery Materials

Augustsson, Andreas January 2004 (has links)
<p>Lithium ion insertion into electrode materials is commonly used in rechargeable battery technology. The insertion implies changes in both the crystal structure and the electronic structure of the electrode material. Side-reactions may occur on the surface of the electrode, which is exposed to the electrolyte and form a solid electrolyte interface (SEI). The understanding of these processes is of great importance for improving battery performance. The chemical and physical properties of water and alcohols are complicated by the presence of strong hydrogen bonding. Various experimental techniques have been used to study geometrical structures and different models have been proposed to view the details of how these liquids are geometrically organized by hydrogen bonding. However, very little is known about the electronic structure of these liquids, mainly due to the lack of suitable experimental tools.</p><p>This thesis addresses the electronic structure of liquids and lithium battery materials using resonant inelastic X-ray scattering (RIXS) at high brightness synchrotron radiation sources. The electronic structure of battery electrodes has been probed, before and after lithiation, studying the doping of electrons into the host material. The chemical composition of the SEI on cycled graphite electrodes was determined. The local electronic structure of water, methanol and mixtures of the two have been examined using a special liquid cell. Results from the study of liquid water showed a strong influence on the 3a<sub>1</sub> molecular orbital and orbital mixing between molecules upon hydrogen bonding. The study of methanol showed the existence of ring and chain formations in the liquid phase and the dominating structures are formed of 6 and 8 molecules. Upon mixing of the two liquids, a segregation at the molecular level was found and the formation of new structures, which could explain the unexpected low increase of the entropy.</p>
347

Coherence theory of atomic de Broglie waves and electromagnetic near fields

Henkel, Carsten January 2004 (has links)
Die Arbeit untersucht theoretisch die Wechselwirkung neutraler Teilchen (Atome, Moleküle) mit Oberflächen, soweit sie durch das elektromagnetische Feld vermittelt wird. Spektrale Energiedichten und Kohärenzfunktionen werden hergeleitet und liefern eine umfassende Charakterisierung des Felds auf der sub-Wellenlängen-Skala. Die Ergebnisse finden auf zwei Teilgebieten Anwendung: in der integrierten Atomoptik, wo ultrakalte Atome an thermische Oberflächen koppeln, und in der Nahfeldoptik, wo eine Auflösung unterhalb der Beugungsbegrenzung mit einzelnen Molekülen als Sonden und Detektoren erzielt werden kann. / We theoretically discuss the interaction of neutral particles (atoms, molecules) with surfaces in the regime where it is mediated by the electromagnetic field. A thorough characterization of the field at sub-wavelength distances is worked out, including energy density spectra and coherence functions. The results are applied to typical situations in integrated atom optics, where ultracold atoms are coupled to a thermal surface, and to single molecule probes in near field optics, where sub-wavelength resolution can be achieved.
348

Soft X-ray Emission Spectroscopy of Liquids and Lithium Battery Materials

Augustsson, Andreas January 2004 (has links)
Lithium ion insertion into electrode materials is commonly used in rechargeable battery technology. The insertion implies changes in both the crystal structure and the electronic structure of the electrode material. Side-reactions may occur on the surface of the electrode, which is exposed to the electrolyte and form a solid electrolyte interface (SEI). The understanding of these processes is of great importance for improving battery performance. The chemical and physical properties of water and alcohols are complicated by the presence of strong hydrogen bonding. Various experimental techniques have been used to study geometrical structures and different models have been proposed to view the details of how these liquids are geometrically organized by hydrogen bonding. However, very little is known about the electronic structure of these liquids, mainly due to the lack of suitable experimental tools. This thesis addresses the electronic structure of liquids and lithium battery materials using resonant inelastic X-ray scattering (RIXS) at high brightness synchrotron radiation sources. The electronic structure of battery electrodes has been probed, before and after lithiation, studying the doping of electrons into the host material. The chemical composition of the SEI on cycled graphite electrodes was determined. The local electronic structure of water, methanol and mixtures of the two have been examined using a special liquid cell. Results from the study of liquid water showed a strong influence on the 3a1 molecular orbital and orbital mixing between molecules upon hydrogen bonding. The study of methanol showed the existence of ring and chain formations in the liquid phase and the dominating structures are formed of 6 and 8 molecules. Upon mixing of the two liquids, a segregation at the molecular level was found and the formation of new structures, which could explain the unexpected low increase of the entropy.
349

Laser flash photolysis studies of halogen atom reactions of atmospheric interest

Laine, Patrick L. 24 October 2011 (has links)
The Earth's atmosphere is a large photochemical reactor consisting primarily of N2 (~78%) and O2 (~21%) with Ar and water vapor being the next most abundant constituents. All of the remaining gases in the atmosphere are referred to as 'trace gases', and they play a critical role in understanding climate change, urban air quality, ozone production and depletion, and in determining the overall 'health' of the atmosphere. These trace components are present in our atmosphere with mixing ratios, i.e., mole fractions, ranging from sub parts per trillion to several hundred parts per million. One class of trace constituents that play a critical role in atmospheric chemistry are free radicals. Free radicals are highly reactive, often initiating the oxidation of natural and anthropogenic atmospheric species, thereby often controlling the fate and lifetimes of these species. The research comprising this dissertation focuses on laboratory studies of the kinetics and mechanisms of free radical (atomic halogen) reactions that can impact the levels of important trace atmospheric species. In the studies reported herein, laser flash photolysis (LFP) was coupled with time resolved atomic resonance fluorescence (RF) spectroscopic detection of Cl or Br atoms to investigate halogen atom chemistry. The research addresses three groups of reactions: Cl atom reactions with alkyl bromides, Cl and Br-initiated oxidations of small (C2-C6) alkenes, and Cl reactions with CH3SCH3 (DMS, dimethylsulfide) and CH3SeCH3 (DMSe, dimethylselenide). The alkyl bromide reactions were experimentally unique in that we were able to deduce kinetics of the Cl atom reaction with bromoethane, n-bromopropane, and 1,2-dibromoethane by monitoring the appearance of the Br product by LFP-RF. The Br is formed via elimination that occurs essentially instantaneously following β-H abstraction by the Cl atom. All three of the bromoalkanes investigated are emitted into the atmosphere primarily from anthropogenic sources and all three have been identified by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) as very short-lived (lifetime less than 6 months) source gases with significant ozone depletion potentials (ODPs). Additionally, the bromoalkanes mentioned above have been of interest as model compounds for larger partially halogenated organics found in the atmosphere, and they have been considered as potential replacement compounds for chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) that have been banned as a result of the Montreal Protocol. Brominated very short-lived compounds are thought to contribute 20-25% of total stratospheric bromine. Thus, there is considerable interest in understanding the atmospheric chemistry of even the most short-lived organic bromine compounds. Temporal profiles of Br atoms provided important kinetic and mechanistic insight for the reactions over a wide range of temperature and pressure. Temperature-dependent rate coefficients are determined for the alkyl bromides of interest for the first time, and the potential importance of the Cl reaction as an atmospheric degradation pathway for each alkyl bromide is qualitatively assessed. The studies of halogen atom reactions with alkenes focused on formation of weakly-bound adducts where kinetics of adduct formation and dissociation as well as non-adduct forming channels were evaluated. The elementary steps in the Br initiated oxidation of the alkenes 2-methyl-1,3-butadiene (isoprene), 2,3-dimethyl-2-butene (tetramethylethylene, TME), and 1,3-butadiene have been investigated. The experimental kinetic database for these reactions is quite sparse. The kinetic results reported herein, suggests that Br reaction with the above olefins is much faster than previously thought. Analysis of the temperature dependence of the "approach to equilibrium" kinetic data in conjunction with electronic structure calculations allows for determination of enthalpy and entropy changes associated with each addition reaction. Where possible, both forward addition and reverse dissociation channels as well as H-abstraction pathways were characterized. The enthalpy change associated with the addition reaction to give the Br−isoprene and Br−1,3-butadiene adducts has been determined for the first time and the bond dissociation enthalpy obtained for the Br−TME adduct is in reasonable agreement with the only other previously reported value. It should be noted that in the case of isoprene and 1,3-butadiene, there are multiple possible adducts that could be formed. In order to help clarify which adducts are more or less likely to be formed, we rely on electronic structure calculations (see Chapter 5) to aid in our overall understanding of the adduct forming channels. Furthermore, for the Br reactions with the three alkenes above, atomic Br kinetics have been monitored directly both in the absence and in the presence of O2 which allowed, for the first time, determination of rate coefficients for the elementary steps in the overall complex mechanism including determination of the Br−olefin + O2 rate coefficient. Also included in this group of reactions is the chlorine reaction with isoprene. In addition to the well-known fact that isoprene is emitted into the atmosphere from vegetation, a potentially significant marine source of isoprene has received considerable attention. Chlorine has long been thought to exist primarily in marine environments, however, recent findings also suggest a significant Cl production rate in the middle of the continental United States. There are numerous room temperature kinetic studies for the Cl + isoprene reaction in the literature, however, there is only one temperature dependent study reported. Current recommended 298 K rate coefficients for isoprene reactions suggest the Cl reaction is ~ 4x faster than the analogous OH reaction. If indeed this is the case, the Cl reaction could play a non-neglibible role in isoprene oxidation in atmospheric locales where Cl concentrations are relatively high. In addition, the C−Cl bond strength in Cl−C5H8 is obtained from direct measurements of the forward and reversible addition rate coefficients. Our results are compared with the literature data, and the potential importance of Cl-initiated oxidation as an atmospheric sink for isoprene is assessed. The final group of reactions investigated involves reactions of Cl with DMS and DMSe. DMS and DMSe are the most prevalent sulfur and selenium compounds emitted to the atmosphere from the oceans. The oxidation of DMS has been studied extensively due to the interest in the possible role of DMS oxidation in the formation of sulfate aerosols, however, DMSe oxidation processes have hardly been studied at all. And, DMSe oxidation products are likely to be less volatile than the analogous DMS species. Selenium is an essential nutrient for many plants and animals; however, there is a fine line between enough and excess selenium which can be toxic. Most studies suggest that atmospheric deposition is an important source of Se contamination, and it is therefore critical to evaluate the source emissions and fate of Se in the atmosphere. Since the majority of atmospheric Se exists in the form of DMSe, determination of the kinetics and oxidation mechanisms of DMSe will go a long way towards understanding the global biogeochemical cycle of Se. Both reversible addition and H-abstraction pathways have been characterized, and the first experimental determination of bond strength of the gas-phase DMS−Cl and DMSe−Cl adducts have been obtained.
350

Star Polymers and Dendrimers Based on Highly Functional Resorcin- and Pyrogallolarenes

Krause, Tilo 28 June 2007 (has links) (PDF)
In the frame of this thesis different calix[4]resorcin- and calix[4]pyrogallolarene derivatives were used as platform for the synthesis of novel star polymers and dendritic structures. The objectives of this work can be portrayed under the following points: First: Synthesis and modification of calix[4]resorcin- and calix[4]pyrogallolarenes with a varying number and varying type of functional sites and their precise characterization by modern NMR techniques and single crystal X-ray diffraction. Second: Synthesis of well-defined star polymers and dendrimers with different number of arms and accordingly dendrons, based on calix[4]resorcin- and calix[4]pyrogallolarenes, via convenient polymerization and generation growth reactions and analysis of the obtained products by different methods (MALDI-TOF-MS, SEC-RI and SEC-MALLS, NMR).

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