Understanding the unequal distribution of life on earth is a fundamental goal of ecology and evolutionary biology. Past efforts to explain large-scale patterns in diversity have tended to focus on two broad classes of explanation, one invoking the importance of abiotic factors (i.e. climate and vegetation) and the other biotic (i.e. competition); but neither has proven entirely adequate. Parasites are a major but poorly understood component of life that may offer some answers. Yet despite widespread theoretical support and some empirical evidence, the role of parasites in explaining patterns in the diversity, distribution, and abundance of species remains largely untested in natural communities. In this thesis I use a mega-diverse elevation gradient of birds as a model system to study the role of avian malaria in explaining these macroecological patterns. In the first data chapter I tested the extent to which patterns of infection across species is predictable. I found that the effects of host ecology and environment were weakly related to infection prevalence and were not consistent across different malaria lineages. Instead, I show that hosts coexisting with many close phylogenetic relatives consistently experience higher infection than evolutionarily distinct host species. In the second chapter I tested if parasite sharing may help explain these observed relationships and show that parasite sharing among host pairs declines with the time since divergence. Spatial contiguity between host pairs was also positively associated with parasite sharing. In the third chapter I tested how infection prevalence varies across species ranges in accordance with expected variation in host abundance. I show that birds are more likely to be infected at the centre of their elevation range, where host abundance is expected to be highest. Intriguingly, I also found that the incidence of host infection is unrelated to the position within the geographic range of the parasite. In the fourth data chapter, I tested whether parasites may regulate diversity by limiting geographic ranges of their hosts through ‘apparent competition’ in which a non-lethal parasite in a primary host, may be lethal in a secondary host. In support of this, I found that more observed bird ranges end at parasite infection zones than would be expected by chance. Taken together, my results suggest that parasites may play a major role in shaping patterns in the distribution and diversity of species, over both ecological and evolutionary scales. This is likely to arise and be maintained by host parasite interactions in which distantly related hosts are less likely to be infected by local parasites than close relatives, thus promoting the build up of diversity locally. On the basis of my analyses, I conclude that across montane elevation gradients in birds, and across diversity gradients more generally, parasites are likely to play a crucial role in the origin and maintenance of high biological diversity.

Master of Science / Department of Biology / Samantha M. Wisely / Nearly 30% of emerging infectious diseases are caused by vector-borne pathogens with wildlife origins, posing a risk for public health, livestock, and wildlife species of conservation concern. Understanding the spatial patterns of exposure to dipteran vectors and their associated pathogens is critical for epidemiological research to target prevention and control of vector-borne infectious diseases. In recent years, Western Equine encephalitis, St. Louis encephalitis, West Nile Virus encephalitis and avian malaria have not only been a public health concern but also a conservation concern, specifically the conservation of grassland nesting birds. Although the central Great Plains is the most specious region for grassland nesting birds, their role in the enzootic (primary) amplification cycle of infectious diseases may lead to further population depressions, and could potentially result in spill-over events to humans and livestock. The goals of my thesis were 1) to identify the underlying causes of spatio-temporal abundance patterns of mosquito vectors within the grasslands of the eastern Smoky Hills, and 2) to create probabilistic distributions of functional disease vectors, to evaluate disease risk in Greater Prairie-chicken (Tympanuchus cupido, surrogate species for other grassland nesting birds). First, I found that temporal dynamics in mosquito abundances were explained by maximum and minimum temperature indices. Spatial dynamics in mosquito abundances were best explained by environmental variables, such as curvature, TWI (Topographic Wetness Index), distance to woodland and distance to road. Second, the overall predictive power of the ecological niche models of important vector species in the grasslands of the Smoky Hills was better than random predictions, indicating that the most important predictor variables in their distribution were: distance to water, TWI, AASHTO (soil particle size distribution), and mean temperature during the coldest quarter. Furthermore, the spatial analysis indicated that Greater Prairie-chicken nest in areas with a higher probability of vector occurrence than other potentially available habitats within the grasslands. However, I failed to detect a significant difference in the probability of vector occurrence at nest of infected versus uninfected females. Understanding the distribution and abundance patterns of vectors of infectious diseases can provide important insights for wildlife conservation as well as public health management.

<div>Wildlife diseases are an increasingly growing concern for public health managers, conservation biologists, and society at large. These diseases may be zoonotic -- infective wildlife are able to spread pathogens to human populations. Animal or plant species of conservation concern may also be threatened with extinction or extirpation due to the spread of novel pathogens into their native ranges. In this thesis, I develop some mathematical methods for understanding the dynamics of vector-borne diseases in wildlife populations which include several elements of host and vector biology. </div><div><br></div><div>We consider systems where a vector-borne pathogen is transmitted to a host population wherein individuals either die to disease or recover, remaining chronically infective. Both ordinary differential equations (ODE) and individual based (IBM) models of such systems are formulated then applied to a specific system of wildlife disease: avian malaria in Hawaiian honeycreeper populations -- where some species endure disease-induced mortality rates exceeding 90\%. The ODE model predicts that conventional management methods cannot fully stop pathogen transmission.</div><div><br></div><div>Vector dispersal and reproductive biology may also play a large role in the transmission of vector-borne diseases in forested environments. Using an IBM which models dispersal and mosquito reproductive biology, we predict that reducing larval habitat at low elevations is much more effective than at higher elevations. The ODE model is extended to include distinct populations of sensitive and tolerant hosts. We find that the form which interaction between the hosts takes has a significant impact on model predictions.</div>

CNPq - Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / A urbanização determina fortes pressões sobre as populações naturais. A riqueza e a abundância de espécies mais sensíveis à urbanização diminuem, enquanto espécies generalistas e/ou oportunistas tendem a se tornar mais comuns, gerando um processo de homogeneização biótica. Outra mudança importante é representada pelo aumento de níveis de transmissão de parasitos, aspecto que vem sendo investigado, principalmente entre aves. Nesse sentido, o objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar se os indivíduos de Columbina talpacoti respondem de formas diferentes em relação aos ambientes naturais e ambientes urbanizados através da análise de índices hematológicos (razão heterófilos/linfócitos e leucócitos globais), parasitológicos (prevalência e parasitemia de hemoparasitos causadores da malária aviária) e índice de condição corporal. O estudo foi realizado no município de Uberlândia (MG). Foram estabelecidos 4 pontos de coleta dentro da cidade e 7 pontos de coleta na Reserva particular do Clube Caça e Pesca Itororó de Uberlândia. As capturas foram realizadas de março/2016 à outubro/2016, com redes de neblina. As aves foram capturadas e submetidas a procedimentos de coleta de sangue e medições biológicas. A coleta do sangue foi realizada através de venopunção braquial, com uma gota de sangue não heparinizado foi confeccionado o esfregaço sanguíneo, duas gotas de sangue foram acondicionadas em álcool absoluto em microtubos para posterior extração do DNA e investigação de haemosporídeos por PCR. A análise dos dados foi realizada através do teste-t e U-Mann-Whitney para verificar a existência de diferenças significativas entre os parâmetros analisados entre áreas urbanas e naturais. Para avaliar se há correlação nos parâmetros avaliados, os dados foram submetidos a correlação de Pearson e de Spearmann. Apenas a razão de heterófilos/linfócitos, que indica estresse, foi maior para área urbana do que na natural (t=3,673; p<0,05), os demais índices avaliados não apresentaram diferenças significativas. Também não foram observadas diferenças significativas entre os parâmetros avaliados com o sexo. O teste de correlação mostrou que apenas o índice de H/L relacionou-se positivamente com os leucócitos totais (rs=0.394; p<0,05), os demais itens não apresentaram correlação entre si. Estes resultados indicam que os animais estão mais estressados no ambiente urbano, mas que com a disponibilidade alta de recursos alimentares em conjunto com a plasticidade fenotípica dos indivíduos, a condição corporal não se altera em nenhuma das áreas. Além disso, como as infecções avaliadas estão em estágio crônico, os sintomas da doença são brandos e quase inexistentes. / Urbanization creates strong pressures on natural populations. Both richness and abundance of more susceptible species diminish due to urbanization, while generalized and / or opportunistic species tend to become more common, leading to a process known as biotic homogenization. Another important contribution of Urbanization is represented by the increasing rates in parasite transmission, mainly among birds. In this sense, the main purpose of this study was to evaluate how individuals of Columbina talpacoti respond in different special gradients: natural and urbanized environments. Three indices were analyzed: hematological, parasitological (avian malaria prevalence and parasitemia) and body condition. The study was carried out in the city of Uberlândia (MG). There were 4 collection points within the city and 7 collection points in the Clube de Caça e Pesca Itororó de Uberlândia. Captures were carried out from March 2016 to October 2016, by using mist nets, and collecting a blood sample and morphometric measurements from each individual. Blood collection was done through a venipuncture, getting a drop of non-heparinized blood to make three blood smears. Two blood drops were conditioned in absolute alcohol in microtubes for later DNA extraction and PCR procedures. Data analysis was performed using Mann-Whitney test to verify the existence of significant differences between the patterns analyzed between urban and natural areas. The data was submitted to both Pearson and Spearmann correlation test to check for possible correlation among the variables. Only one hematological index (heterophilic / lymphocyte ratio), which indicates stress, was higher for the urban than natural area (t = 3.673, p <0.05). The other indices were not statistically significant. There were also no significant differences between sex identities as well. Only the H/L index was positively related to the total leukocytes (rs = 0.394, p <0.05), shown by the correlation tests. These results indicate that animals are more stressed in the urban environment. Having high food availability coupled with a phenotypic plasticity of individuals, body condition did not change in any of the areas. In addition, since the infections evaluated are in the chronic stage, the symptoms of the disease are mild and almost non-existent. / Dissertação (Mestrado)

Submitted by Renata Lopes (renatasil82@gmail.com) on 2016-04-04T14:47:24Z No. of bitstreams: 1 raquelcristinatostes.pdf: 5129752 bytes, checksum: 56eee034002e91d6ed4e44f4fcdbf708 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Adriana Oliveira (adriana.oliveira@ufjf.edu.br) on 2016-04-24T03:56:36Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 raquelcristinatostes.pdf: 5129752 bytes, checksum: 56eee034002e91d6ed4e44f4fcdbf708 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-24T03:56:36Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 raquelcristinatostes.pdf: 5129752 bytes, checksum: 56eee034002e91d6ed4e44f4fcdbf708 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-02-21 / CAPES - Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / FAPEMIG - Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de Minas Gerais / A malária é uma das doenças mais comuns entre as aves e vem causando danos às espécies em todo o mundo, podendo em muitos casos ser fatal. Pode causar alterações fisiológicas em diferentes órgãos, as quais podem ser caracterizadas por análises bioquímicas e por análises histopatológicas. Assim, os objetivos do presente trabalho foram verificar a prevalência e parasitemia de parasitos maláricos em aves silvestres em cativeiro da Mata Atlântica em Minas Gerais e realizar a caracterização bioquímica sérica e histopatológica das aves infectadas. Para isso, foram coletadas amostras de sangue de 119 aves e feitos esfregaços sanguíneos para cálculo da prevalência e parasitemia. Foi utilizada ainda a biologia molecular para cálculo da prevalência, comparando os resultados à microscopia. Para as análises bioquímicas e histopatológicas foram utilizadas seis aves infectadas e eutanasiadas pelo IBAMA. A prevalência média nas análises microscópicas foi de 83,19% e a parasitemia de 1,51%, enquanto que na biologia molecular foi de 82,5%. Os cortes histológicos demonstraram alterações no fígado, rins, baço e coração, provavelmente secundárias à infecção malárica, destacando-se no fígado, baço e rins a presença de pigmentação acastanhada, sugestiva de pigmento malárico ou hemozoína. Os valores das análises bioquímicas, valores da enzima ALT e de proteínas totais foram aparentemente mais altos em aves com parasitemia maior, diferente dos valores da AST, que foram aparentemente normais. É necessário considerar que parâmetros bioquímicos podem ser alterados por fatores internos e externos, o que pode explicar a diferença dos valores das enzimas encontrados no presente estudo com valores para outras espécies relatados na literatura. Sugere-se estudos visando estabelecer valores de referência de análises bioquímicas, que podem ser utilizadas como ferramenta para caracterização da saúde das aves silvestres. / Malaria is one of the most common diseases among birds and has caused damage to the species in all the world and can often be fatal. It can cause physiological changes, which can be characterized by biochemical and histopathological analysis. The aim of this study were to determine the prevalence and the parasitemias and malarial parasites in captive wild birds from Floresta Atlântica in Minas Gerais and to characterize serum biochemistry and histopathology of infected birds. For this, blood samples were collected from 119 birds, prepared blood smears for estimating the prevalence and the parasitemias. For biochemical analysis and histopathological features were analyzed six and infected birds. The mean prevalence in blood smears was 83.19% and mean parasitemia 1.51%, while in the molecular biology was 82,5%. Histological sections demonstrated alterations in liver, kidney, spleen and heart, probably by to malaria infection. In the liver, spleen and kidneys the presence of brownish pigmentation, suggestive of malarial pigment, the hemozoin. The values enzyme ALT and total proteins were apparently higher in birds with parasitemia greater than those of AST values that were apparently normal. You must consider that biochemical parameters can be changed by internal and external factors, which may explain the difference in the values of enzymes found in the present study with values for other species reported in the literature. It is suggested studies to establish reference values for biochemical analysis, which may be used as a tool to characterize the health of the birds.

Submitted by isabela.moljf@hotmail.com (isabela.moljf@hotmail.com) on 2017-05-10T14:43:51Z No. of bitstreams: 1 luisadeoliveira.pdf: 1689764 bytes, checksum: 7af6e626808d1ab5d4fc1de9be514aaa (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Adriana Oliveira (adriana.oliveira@ufjf.edu.br) on 2017-05-17T15:08:15Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 luisadeoliveira.pdf: 1689764 bytes, checksum: 7af6e626808d1ab5d4fc1de9be514aaa (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Adriana Oliveira (adriana.oliveira@ufjf.edu.br) on 2017-05-17T15:08:48Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 luisadeoliveira.pdf: 1689764 bytes, checksum: 7af6e626808d1ab5d4fc1de9be514aaa (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-05-17T15:08:48Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 luisadeoliveira.pdf: 1689764 bytes, checksum: 7af6e626808d1ab5d4fc1de9be514aaa (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014-10-10 / CAPES - Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Hemosporídeos de aves silvestres são considerados importantes agentes etiológicos e podem causar danos às populações dos hospedeiros. O presente estudo teve como objetivos: determinar a prevalência e a parasitemia para Plasmodium spp. e Haemoproteus spp. de Passeriformes da Mata Atlântica de Minas Gerais, por meio de dois métodos de diagnóstico, microscopia e nested PCR e caracterizar morfologicamente a espécie Plasmodium (Haemamoeba) lutzi Lucena, 1939. Amostras de sangue foram obtidas por punção da veia braquial para preparação de esfregaços que foram fixados em metanol e corados em Giemsa. Foram amostradas 237 aves pertencentes a 18 famílias e 56 espécies da ordem Passeriformes provenientes do IBAMA e capturadas no Jardim Botânico da Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora (JB-UFJF). A prevalência para Plasmodium spp. foi 63,63% em aves do IBAMA e 26,25% em aves do JB-UFJF, apenas três indivíduos encontraram-se parasitados por Haemoproteus spp., sendo dois (2,5%) provenientes do IBAMA e um (0,62%) do JB-UFJF. A parasitemia média encontrada para Plasmodium spp./Haemoproteus spp. foi de 0,08 (± 0,08) no IBAMA e 0,05 (± 0,04) no JB-UFJF. O maior grau de parasitemia média foi registrado nas espécies Turdus albicollis, Zonotrichia capensis (0,22%), Turdus rufiventris (0,18% ± 0,29), Gnorimopsar chopi (0,1% ± 0,07) no IBAMA e Turdus rufiventris (0,17 % ± 0,13), Arremon semitorquatus (0,11% ± 0,13) no JB-UFJF. Foi identificada em uma das aves (A. semitorquatus), a presença da espécie Plasmodium (H.) lutzi, a qual foi morfologicamente caracterizada. A prevalência registrada é considerada alta, entretanto verificou-se uma baixa parasitemia, o que pode estar relacionado à evolução crônica da infecção. Infecções agudas por Plasmodium spp. levam ao aparecimento de sinais clínicos com expressão rápida dos sintomas, sendo que nos casos mais graves pode ocorrer a morte do hospedeiro. Visto a elevada prevalência, levantamentos acerca de infecções por hemoparasitos em aves silvestres podem ajudar na elaboração de estratégias de profilaxia e tratamento de doenças parasitárias para a conservação das espécies. / Hemosporidian wild birds are considered important etiological agents and can cause damage to populations of hosts. The present study aimed to: ¹determine prevalence and parasitemia for Plasmodium spp. and Haemoproteus spp. Passeriformes of the Atlantic Forest of Minas Gerais, through two diagnostic methods, microscopy and nested PCR; and caracterize morphologically the species Plasmodium (Haemamoeba) lutzi Lucena, 1939. Blood samples were obtained by puncturing the brachial vein for preparation of smears, fixed in methanol and stained with Giemsa. 237 birds belonging to 18 families and 56 species of the order Passeriformes from IBAMA were sampled and captured in the Botanical Garden of the Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora (BG-UFJF). The prevalence of Plasmodium spp. in birds of IBAMA was 63.63% and 26.25% in birds of BG-FUJF, only three individuals were infected by Haemoproteus spp., two (2.5%) from IBAMA and one (0.62 %) of BG-FUJF. The average parasitemia found for Plasmodium spp./ Haemoproteus spp. was 0.08 (± 0.08) at IBAMA and 0.05 (± 0.04) in BG-UFJF. The highest degree of mean parasitaemia was recorded in the species Turdus albicollis, Zonotrichia capensis (0.22%), Turdus rufiventris (0.18% ± 0.29), Gnorimopsar chopi (0.1% ± 0.07) at IBAMA and Turdus rufiventris (0.17% ± 0.13), Arremon semitorquatus (0.11% ± 0.13) in BG-UFJF. Was identified in one of the birds (A. semitorquatus) by means of morphology, the presence of Plasmodium (H.) lutzi species, which was characterized morphologically. Registered prevalence is considered high, however a low parasitaemia was found, which may be related to chronic course of infection.. Acute infections with Plasmodium spp. lead to the onset of clinical signs with rapid symptom expression, and in severe cases death canoccurat the host. Since the high prevalence surveys about hemoparasites infections in wild birds can help in developing strategies for prophylaxis and treatment of parasitic diseases to species conservation.

L'évolution de la résistance aux insecticides chez les moustiques responsables de la transmission de maladies infectieuses compromet notre capacité à contrôler ces populations de vecteurs et pose de graves problèmes de santé publique. Mais les nombreuses modifications physiologiques associées au phénomène de résistance aux insecticides pourraient altérer l'épidémiologie de ces maladies de manière plus indirecte en modifiant la capacité vectorielle des moustiques. Afin d'étudier cette question nous avons mis en place un nouveau système expérimental composé du parasite aviaire Plasmodium relictum SGS1 et de son vecteur naturel le moustique Culex pipiens. Nous avons étudié l'effet de différents allèles de résistance aux insecticides (représentant deux mécanismes principaux i.e. la résistance métabolique ou la modification de la cible) sur une série de traits d'histoire de vie du parasite et du moustique. L'impact de ces différents allèles a été étudié d'une part, dans les conditions contrôlées de leur expression dans un même fond génétique (en utilisant plusieurs souches de moustiques isogéniques), et d'autre part, dans les conditions plus réalistes de leur expression dans un fond génétique hétérogène (utilisation de moustiques échantillonnés sur le terrain). Nous montrons que la résistance aux insecticides a des effets pleïotropes sur l'immunocompétence et les traits d'histoire de vie des moustiques. Son effet sur le développement de Plasmodium semble en revanche limité. Nous discutons d'une part, de la nécessité de poursuivre une approche multifactorielle (impliquant la physiologie, l'immunité et le comportement des moustiques) afin de mieux comprendre l'impact de la résistance aux insecticides sur la transmission de Plasmodium, et d'autre part des perspectives intéressantes qu'offrent ce nouveau système expérimental pour l'étude de l'écologie évolutive des maladies à vecteurs. / The evolution of insecticide resistance in mosquitoes threatens our ability to control many-vector-transmitted diseases, thereby raising serious public health issues. Insecticide resistance entails numerous physiological changes in mosquitoes. This thesis investigates whether these physiological changes alter the quality of mosquitoes as vectors of malaria. To address this issue, we developed a new experimental system consisting in the avian malaria parasite Plasmodium relictum SGS1 and its natural vector, the mosquito Culex pipiens. We investigated the impact of two insecticide resistance mechanisms (target site resistance and metabolic resistance) on several mosquito and parasite life history traits relevant for malaria transmission. The effect of different insecticide resistant genes was investigated using both isogenic laboratory mosquito strains (i.e. against a homogeneous genetic background) and sympatric field caught mosquitoes (i.e. under the more realistic, albeit noisier, conditions of a heterogeneous genetic background). We show that insecticide resistance has a pleiotropic effect on several mosquito traits (immunocompetence, longevity, fecundity), whereas it has only a limited effect on Plasmodium development. We discuss, on the one hand, the need to pursue such a multi-factorial approach (combining the mosquito physiology, immunity and behavior) to better understand the impact of insecticide resistance on malaria transmission and, on the other hand, the promising perspectives offered by this new experimental system for studying the evolutionary-ecology of infectious diseases.

L’étude des interactions hôtes-parasites est devenue un thème de recherche incontournable pour les sciences de l’évolution. Cette coévolution complexe dépend de nombreux compromis évolutifs et peut être grandement influencée par les facteurs environnementaux. Nous nous proposons ici d’étudier les interactions hôtes-parasites à plusieurs échelles, à travers des approches expérimentales et des études en populations naturelles, en étudiant les parasites de la malaria aviaire. Dans un premier temps, nous nous sommes intéressés à l’influence des caractéristiques de l’hôte et notamment au système immunitaire. Le système immunitaire est bénéfique pour l’hôte dans sa lutte contre le parasite, mais peut également engendrer des coûts immunopathologiques. Des traits d’histoire de vie, comme l’âge ou le statut social peuvent modifier la parasitémie au sein des hôtes, sans toutefois avoir d’effet sur la prévalence. Dans un second temps, l’effet de certains facteurs environnementaux a été évalué au sein des interactions hôtes-parasites. La température et la contamination en métaux lourds ont un effet sur la prévalence dans les populations, mais n’affectent pas la parasitémie. Au cours de cette thèse, nous avons également montré l’influence directe des parasites sanguins sur la structure génétique des populations hôtes, notamment au niveau des gènes du CMH. / Host-parasite interactions are one of the main topics in evolutionary sciences. This complex coevolution depends on several trade-offs and can be influenced by environmental factors. Here, we propose to study host-parasite interactions with a multi-level approach, using experimental and natural population studies, focusing on avian malaria parasites. First, we studied the effect of host characteristics, and more precisely the immune system. The immune system confers benefits in terms of protection against the parasite, but can also generated immunopathological costs. Life history traits, like age or social status, appear to modify parasitemia but not prevalence. In a second part, we evaluated the effect of environmental factors on host-parasite interactions. We found that temperature and heavy metal contamination had an effect on population prevalence, but not on host parasitemia. We also showed the direct parasite influence on host population genetic structure, and more precisely on MHC genes.

L'étude des interactions hôtes/parasites est actuellement un thème de recherche incontournable des sciences de l'évolution. Une des questions majeures soulevée par ces études est de comprendre pourquoi certains parasites provoquent des maladies mortelles, alors que d'autres restent relativement bénins pour leurs hôtes. Dans ce défi que tentent de relever les biologistes de l’évolution mais également les sciences médicales, nous avons choisi de nous intéresser à la malaria aviaire, et plus précisément à son représentant le plus commun dans les populations naturelles d’oiseaux : Plasmodium relictum. En procédant à des infections expérimentales de canaris domestiques (Serinus canaria), nous avons voulu comprendre quels facteurs liés aux caractéristiques du parasite et de l’oiseau (au niveau de l’individu ou de la population) pouvaient influencer la virulence de Plasmodium relictum. Nous avons ainsi pu mettre en évidence que des facteurs, tels que le passé infectieux de l’hôte, la dose de parasites reçue, la prévalence de ces derniers dans la population d’oiseaux ou bien encore les interactions sociales entre individus, pouvaient moduler les coûts d’une telle infection. La virulence est un trait composite qui dépend, certes, de l’exploitation de l’hôte par les parasites mais également de la réponse immunitaire de ce dernier contre l’infection. Nous avons pu le vérifier dans notre système expérimental en utilisant une approche immuno-écologique. Nous nous sommes enfin intéressée aux conditions favorisant l’évolution de la virulence : ce qui est essentiel pour comprendre l’émergence ou la réémergence de maladies infectieuses et pour développer des stratégies de contrôle de ces maladies. / Host-parasite interaction became one of the main topics of evolutionary sciences researches. One of the major issues raised by these studies is to understand why some parasites cause fatal diseases while others remain relatively mild to their hosts. In this challenge attempting to take up the evolutionary biologist and the medical sciences, we focused on avian malaria, and more specifically on its most common parasite: Plasmodium relictum. In performing experimental infections in domestic canaries (Serinus canaria), we wanted to understand what factors related to parasite and birds characteristics, could influence Plasmodium relictum virulence. We highlighted that factors such as infectious past, parasites dose, prevalence in bird’s population and social interactions between individuals could modulate costs of such infection. Virulence is a composite trait that depends on the host’s exploitation by parasites but also the host’s immune response against the infection. We were able to show that in our experimental system using an approach of immunological ecology. Finally we focused on the conditions favouring the virulence evolution: an essential point to understand emergence or re-emergence of infectious diseases and to develop strategies to control these diseases.

Avian malaria (Plasmodium spp.) is a popular model system to study the ecology and evolution of parasite-host-vector interactions in the wild. These studies have historically focused mostly on the avian hosts and the malaria parasites. Knowledge regarding the role of vectors is essential to our understanding of these wild systems, but has only very recently started to accumulate. This thesis aimed to contribute to this field by assessing mosquito-malaria-host associations for British mosquitoes and the role of mosquito ecology in shaping these parasite systems in a British woodland study site, using molecular, field ecology and statistical modelling methodologies. From the 12 mosquito species or species groups found, I showed that the Cx.pipiens/torrentium mosquito group is likely to have a major role in avian malaria transmission in Great Britain, while Cs. annulata may be transmitting P. circumflexum. I also demonstrated a positive spatial association between mosquito density per host and avian malaria prevalence, in accordance with theoretical expectations for malaria transmission. Findings here provide evidence that avian malaria transmission in British woodlands is limited mainly to June-August, being preceded by relapse of previous infections or, alternatively, by maintenance of chronic blood parasitaemia through the colder months; this agrees with theoretical expectations and findings elsewhere for temperate climates. This thesis also described local-scale spatial heterogeneity and seasonal variation in adult mosquito abundance within a British woodland where avian malaria is endemic, with differing patterns found between species or species groups. Spatially, variation in adult mosquito abundance was associated with microclimatic and landscape variables such as distances to mosquito breeding sites, microclimate and canopy height; seasonally, variation in mosquito abundance was associated with temperature and rainfall, alongside calendar date. The heterogeneity in mosquito parameters and associations with environmental variables found at a site where avian malaria is endemic highlights the need to anticipate such complexity when trying to understand Plasmodium transmission. By doing so, we further extend the potential of these parasite systems to improve our knowledge regarding the ecology and evolution of parasite-host-vector associations.