A desregulação da apoptose, principalmente da via mitocondrial, exerce papel na progressão tumoral, resistência à quimioterapia, além de favorecer a formação de metástases por permitir a sobrevivência de células tumorais na circulação e outros microambientes teciduais. No presente estudo, foram avaliados 58 mastocitomas cutâneos caninos, provenientes de 50 animais submetidos à cirurgia excisional como única forma de tratamento. Os tumores foram graduados de acordo com o sistemas de estabelecidos por Patnaik, Ehler e MacEwen (1984) e Kiupel et al. (2011). As expressões das proteínas relacionadas à via intrínseca da apoptose, BCL2, BAX, APAF1, Caspase 9 e Caspase 3, foram caracterizadas por meio de imuno-histoquímica. Os resultados obtidos das imunomarcações foram comparados às graduações histopatológicas, bem como à mortalidade em função do tumor e ao tempo de sobrevida pós-cirúrgico. Observamos maior expressão de BAX em mastocitomas de grau III, bem como menor expressão de BCL2 em tumores de alto grau. A detecção imuno-histoquímica de BAX foi considerada um indicador prognóstico para sobrevida e mortalidade em função da doença, enquanto que as de APAF1 e BCL2 adicionaram valor prognóstico às graduações histopatológicas melhorando a previsão da sobrevida pós-cirurgia / Deregulation of apoptosis, especially in the mitochondrial pathway, plays a role in tumor progression, resistance to chemotherapy, and favor the formation of metastases by allowing the survival of tumor cells in the blood stream and other tissue microenvironments. In the present study, we evaluated 58 canine cutaneous mast cell tumors, from 50 dogs, which were submitted to excisional surgery alone. The tumors were graded according to the systems proposed by Patnaik, Ehler and MacEwen (1984) and Kiupel et al. (2011). The expression of the apoptosis-related proteins BCL2, BAX, APAF1, caspase 9 and caspase 3 was characterized by immunohistochemistry. Immunohistochemical results were compared with the histopathological grades, mortality due to the tumor and post-surgical survival time. We observed increased expression of BAX in grade III mast cell tumors and lower expression of BCL2 in high-grade tumors. Immunohistochemical detection of BAX was considered an independent indicator of prognosis for survival and mortality due to the disease, whereas APAF1 and BCL2 added prognostic value to the histopathological grading systems improving the prediction of survival post surgery

Cerca de 40% dos oócitos bovinos fecundados não completam o desenvolvimento da fase de pré-implantação. A aquisição da competência para o desenvolvimento do oócito depende de alterações morfológicas, bioquímicas e moleculares. Essas alterações ocorrem tanto nos oócitos como nas células do cumulus. O presente trabalho estudou a interação cumulus e oócito no processo de morte celular programada nos complexos de cumulus oophoros (COCs) de diferentes classes morfológicas em bovinos. Os COCs foram puncionados de ovários de abatedouro, selecionados e classificados em 3 qualidades morfológicas: A: cumulus completo; B: cumulus parcial; C: cumulus expandido (todos com ooplasma homogêneo). Os COCs foram utilizados para avaliação da maturação nuclear em 0 e em 24h de cultivo do grau de fragmentação do DNA das células do cumulus (CC) antes e após a maturação in vitro, avaliação da competência do desenvolvimento embrionário partenogenético até o 9º dia pós-ativação, avaliação da qualidade dos blastocistos e estimativa dos transcritos e proteínas BCL-2 e BAX em CC maturados por 24h. Os resultados obtidos demonstraram que a maioria dos oócitos imaturos do grupo COC-A estavam em estádio de VGi e apresentavam dano mínimo ou inexistente no DNA. Ao contrário, os COCs B e C após a retirada do folículo apresentavam-se em estádio mais avançado de VG e fragmentação do DNA. Após a maturação dos COCs houve um aumento significativo dos núcleos fragmentados nos grupos COC-C e principalmente no COC-B. A morfologia dos COCs alterou a quantidade de oócitos que conseguiram ultrapassar o bloqueio embrionário e desenvolver à blastocisto e não a qualidade dos blastocistos. A expressão da proteína BCL-2 nos COCs não diferiu entre as diferentes morfologias de COCs. No entanto, a razão entre as proteínas BCL-2/BAX foi maior nos grupos com o cumulus completo e no grupo com o cumulus expandido. O grupo de COC-B foi o que apresentou maior quantidade da proteína BAX e menor relação entre as proteínas BCL-2/BAX. Com base nestes resultados, conclui-se que em COCs de diferentes morfologias existe uma correlação negativa entre fragmentação nuclear e potencial de desenvolvimento embrionário, e ainda que a baixa razão das proteínas BCL-2/BAX está relacionada com o aumento de fragmentação nuclear nas CC. No entanto, essa relação não ocorre com transcritos dos genes BCL-2 e BAX / About 40% of fertilized bovine oocytes do not complete development during the preimplantation period. It is known that the in vitro embryo production system is influenced by several factors, among them, the morphological quality of cumulus-oocyte complexes (COCs). The present work aimed to study the cumulus-oocyte interaction on the process of programmed cell death in bovine COCs of different morphological classes. The COCs were obtained from bovine ovaries and classified according to the morphology of their cumulus cell layers, as follows: class A, compact and with many layers; class B, compact with few layers; class C, expanded (all classes with homogeneous ooplasm). Before in vitro maturation (IVM), the nuclear maturation in COCs and DNA fragmentation in cumulus cells (CC) were evaluated. After IVM, oocytes and CC were analyzed for nuclear maturation, DNA fragmentation and BCL-2 and BAX transcripts and proteins. The developmental competence and quality of parthenogenetic embryos at the 9th day post-activation were also analyzed. The results showed that the majority of class A immature oocytes were at iGV stage, with minimal or inexistent DNA fragmantation, contrasting with the other classes of oocytes. In immature class B and C oocytes, the fGV stage of nuclear maturation was the most frequent, with increased DNA fragmentation. After IVM, an increase in DNA fragmentation was observed in B and C COCs, mainly in B group. The morphological type of COCs was not related with blastocyst quality, but affected the proportion of embryos capable of overcoming developmental block and reaching the blastocyst stage. BCL-2 protein in CC had the same expression level in all the COCs groups. However, the BCL-2/BAX proteins ratio was higher in A and C groups. COC-B had the highest BAX expression and lower ratio. These data demonstrate that there is a negative correlation between DNA fragmentation in CC and embryo developmental potential in different morphological types of COCs, and that the lower the BCL2/BAX protein ratio the greates the DNA fragmentation in CC, but this relation does not occur with transcripts

<p>Apoptosis is a genetically regulated cell death program, which shows distinct morphological characteristics. It takes place during neuronal development and in some neurodegenerative diseases. During apoptosis, the intracellular proteins are degraded by various caspases, cysteine aspartases, which are regulated by pro- and anti-apoptotic signals. This thesis elucidates the role of anti-apoptotic proteins in nerve cell survival and neurodegeneration. Studies have focused on Bcl-2 family members and Inhibitor of Apoptosis Proteins (IAP).</p><p>XIAP and RIAP-2 are IAP proteins, which are expressed by neurons in the central nervous system. Kainic acid, a glutamate receptor agonist that induces seizures, increased XIAP immunoreactivity in rat hippocampus, whereas RIAP-2 expression in the same time decreased in degenerating neurons. Both XIAP and RIAP-2 were absent in dying neurons indicating that these proteins have a protective role in kainic acid induced neurodegeneration.</p><p>NAIP, another IAP family member, was shown to interact with the calcium binding protein Hippocalcin using the yeast two-hybrid system and immunoprecipitation experiments. Hippocalcin-NAIP interaction increased motoneuron survival in caspase-3 independent and dependent manners.</p><p>The anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 proteins, Bcl-2 and Bcl-x, were studied using cultured neurons and human neuronal progenitor cells. In the progenitor cells, Bcl-2 overexpression enhanced cell survival and induced downregulation of Caspase-2 (ICH-1) and caspase-3 (YAMA/CPP32). These results suggest a novel mechanism for the action of Bcl-2.</p><p>Estrogen was shown to inhibit death of cultured dorsal root ganglion neurons (DRG) after nerve growth factor withdrawal. The hormone increased the levels of Bcl-x, which may explain the known neuroprotective function of estrogen.</p>

<p>Upon activation mast cells release numerous proinflammatory mediators. With this feature, mast cells play an important role in host defense against pathogens, and are involved in tissue remodeling and wound healing. However, in cases of excessive inflammation the effects of mast cells are detrimental. This is observed in allergy, asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, atherosclerosis, certain types of heart failure, and in several other chronic destructive inflammations. Mast cell numbers are typically increased at inflammatory sites. There they act both directly, as effector cells, and in a regulatory manner, secreting agents that recruit and activate other immune cells.</p><p>The studies presented here investigated mechanisms regulating mast cell numbers at sites of inflammation, focusing on cell migration and regulation of survival/apoptosis. We report that SCF-induced mast cell migration requires p38 MAP kinase activity. Moreover, we found that SCF-mediated mast cell survival is regulated through downregulation of the proapoptotic Bcl-2 family member Bim, as well as through phoshorylation of Bim. SCF seems to control Bim protein levels via FOXO transcription factors, and to induce phosphorylation of Bim via the Mek/Erk and the PI3-kinase/Akt signaling pathways. Furthermore, mast cell death triggered by deprivation of SCF and/or IL-3 involves the Bim protein, as demonstrated using <i>bim</i>-/- mast cells. Additional studies revealed that IgE-receptor activation, which occurs in allergy, promotes both prosurvival and proapoptotic signaling events. This includes upregulation of Bim and the prosurvival Bcl-X_L and A1, as well as phosphorylation of Akt, FOXO factors, GSK-3β, IκB-α, Bad, and Bim. The simultaneous stimulation of prosurvival and proapoptotic signaling events could be a way to fine-tune the fate of mast cells after IgE-receptor activation and degranulation.</p><p>The new insights about mechanisms involved in mast cell migration and regulation of survival/apoptosis might prove useful for future efforts to design new drugs to be used for mast cell-associated diseases.</p>

<p>Apoptosis is a type of cell death with a specific morphology and molecular program, which is essential for the development of the nervous system. However, inappropriate cell death has been implicated in several neurodegenerative diseases. The Bcl-2 protein family is a class of proteins, which can regulate the cell death program in either a positive (pro-apoptotic family members) or a negative (anti-apoptotic family members) way. </p><p> This thesis further elucidates the role of Bcl-2 family members in the nervous system. Special focus has been put on the anti-apoptotic family member Bcl-w, whose function in the nervous system was previously unknown, and the pro-apoptotic family member Bad which serves as a link between growth factor signalling and apoptosis.</p><p> Bcl-w mRNA was found to be upregulated during rat brain development suggesting increasing importance of Bcl-w with age in the nervous system. In contrast, mRNA levels encoding the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-x were downregulated during development. Bcl-w was also found to have an anti-apoptotic function in neurons, rescuing sympathetic neurons from cell death after nerve growth factor deprivation.</p><p> To further elucidate the mechanism by which Bcl-w exerts its function, we screened a yeast two-hybrid library for proteins interacting with Bcl-w. Two of the isolated positive clones encoded the pro-apoptotic protein Bad and a novel splice variant of Bad with a different carboxyterminal sequence. Both isoforms of Bad induced cell death in sympathetic neurons, which could be counteracted by Bcl-w, indicating that Bcl-w and Bad can interact both physically and functionally.</p><p> Further studies on the genomic structure of the Bad gene suggested the presence of an additional splice variant, not expressing the first exon. Immunohistochemical analysis indicates that the isoform(s) not expressing the first exon is more widely expressed in adult rat brain than the known forms.</p><p> Finally, we show that high cell density can enhance survival of cerebellar granule neurons and that bcl-2 and bcl-x mRNA levels are upregulated in high density cultures.</p>

Apoptosis is a type of cell death with a specific morphology and molecular program, which is essential for the development of the nervous system. However, inappropriate cell death has been implicated in several neurodegenerative diseases. The Bcl-2 protein family is a class of proteins, which can regulate the cell death program in either a positive (pro-apoptotic family members) or a negative (anti-apoptotic family members) way. This thesis further elucidates the role of Bcl-2 family members in the nervous system. Special focus has been put on the anti-apoptotic family member Bcl-w, whose function in the nervous system was previously unknown, and the pro-apoptotic family member Bad which serves as a link between growth factor signalling and apoptosis. Bcl-w mRNA was found to be upregulated during rat brain development suggesting increasing importance of Bcl-w with age in the nervous system. In contrast, mRNA levels encoding the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-x were downregulated during development. Bcl-w was also found to have an anti-apoptotic function in neurons, rescuing sympathetic neurons from cell death after nerve growth factor deprivation. To further elucidate the mechanism by which Bcl-w exerts its function, we screened a yeast two-hybrid library for proteins interacting with Bcl-w. Two of the isolated positive clones encoded the pro-apoptotic protein Bad and a novel splice variant of Bad with a different carboxyterminal sequence. Both isoforms of Bad induced cell death in sympathetic neurons, which could be counteracted by Bcl-w, indicating that Bcl-w and Bad can interact both physically and functionally. Further studies on the genomic structure of the Bad gene suggested the presence of an additional splice variant, not expressing the first exon. Immunohistochemical analysis indicates that the isoform(s) not expressing the first exon is more widely expressed in adult rat brain than the known forms. Finally, we show that high cell density can enhance survival of cerebellar granule neurons and that bcl-2 and bcl-x mRNA levels are upregulated in high density cultures.

Apoptosis is a genetically regulated cell death program, which shows distinct morphological characteristics. It takes place during neuronal development and in some neurodegenerative diseases. During apoptosis, the intracellular proteins are degraded by various caspases, cysteine aspartases, which are regulated by pro- and anti-apoptotic signals. This thesis elucidates the role of anti-apoptotic proteins in nerve cell survival and neurodegeneration. Studies have focused on Bcl-2 family members and Inhibitor of Apoptosis Proteins (IAP). XIAP and RIAP-2 are IAP proteins, which are expressed by neurons in the central nervous system. Kainic acid, a glutamate receptor agonist that induces seizures, increased XIAP immunoreactivity in rat hippocampus, whereas RIAP-2 expression in the same time decreased in degenerating neurons. Both XIAP and RIAP-2 were absent in dying neurons indicating that these proteins have a protective role in kainic acid induced neurodegeneration. NAIP, another IAP family member, was shown to interact with the calcium binding protein Hippocalcin using the yeast two-hybrid system and immunoprecipitation experiments. Hippocalcin-NAIP interaction increased motoneuron survival in caspase-3 independent and dependent manners. The anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 proteins, Bcl-2 and Bcl-x, were studied using cultured neurons and human neuronal progenitor cells. In the progenitor cells, Bcl-2 overexpression enhanced cell survival and induced downregulation of Caspase-2 (ICH-1) and caspase-3 (YAMA/CPP32). These results suggest a novel mechanism for the action of Bcl-2. Estrogen was shown to inhibit death of cultured dorsal root ganglion neurons (DRG) after nerve growth factor withdrawal. The hormone increased the levels of Bcl-x, which may explain the known neuroprotective function of estrogen.

Upon activation mast cells release numerous proinflammatory mediators. With this feature, mast cells play an important role in host defense against pathogens, and are involved in tissue remodeling and wound healing. However, in cases of excessive inflammation the effects of mast cells are detrimental. This is observed in allergy, asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, atherosclerosis, certain types of heart failure, and in several other chronic destructive inflammations. Mast cell numbers are typically increased at inflammatory sites. There they act both directly, as effector cells, and in a regulatory manner, secreting agents that recruit and activate other immune cells. The studies presented here investigated mechanisms regulating mast cell numbers at sites of inflammation, focusing on cell migration and regulation of survival/apoptosis. We report that SCF-induced mast cell migration requires p38 MAP kinase activity. Moreover, we found that SCF-mediated mast cell survival is regulated through downregulation of the proapoptotic Bcl-2 family member Bim, as well as through phoshorylation of Bim. SCF seems to control Bim protein levels via FOXO transcription factors, and to induce phosphorylation of Bim via the Mek/Erk and the PI3-kinase/Akt signaling pathways. Furthermore, mast cell death triggered by deprivation of SCF and/or IL-3 involves the Bim protein, as demonstrated using bim-/- mast cells. Additional studies revealed that IgE-receptor activation, which occurs in allergy, promotes both prosurvival and proapoptotic signaling events. This includes upregulation of Bim and the prosurvival Bcl-XL and A1, as well as phosphorylation of Akt, FOXO factors, GSK-3β, IκB-α, Bad, and Bim. The simultaneous stimulation of prosurvival and proapoptotic signaling events could be a way to fine-tune the fate of mast cells after IgE-receptor activation and degranulation. The new insights about mechanisms involved in mast cell migration and regulation of survival/apoptosis might prove useful for future efforts to design new drugs to be used for mast cell-associated diseases.

MicroARN (miARN) ont récemment émergé comme un acteur central du gène réseau de régulation impliqués dans la prise du destin cellulaire. L'apoptose, un actif processus, par lequel des cellules déclenchent leur auto-destruction en réponse à un signal, peut être contrôlé par les miARN. Il a également été impliqué dans une variété de maladies humaines, comme les maladies du cœur, et a été pensé comme une cible pour le traitement de la maladie. Tanshinone IIA (TIIA), un monomère de phenanthrenequinones utilisé pour traiter maladies cardiovasculaires, est connu pour exercer des effets cardioprotecteurs de l'infarctus du myocarde en ciblant l'apoptose par le renforcement de Bcl-2 expression. Pour explorer les liens potentiels entre le miARN et l'action anti-apoptotique de TIIA, nous étudié l'implication possible des miARN. Nous avons constaté que l'expression de tous les trois membres de la famille miR-34, miR-34a, miR-34b et miR-34c ont été fortement régulée à la hausse après l'exposition soit à la doxorubicine, un agent endommageant l'ADN ou de pro-oxydant H2O2 pendant 24 heures. Cette régulation à la hausse causé significativement la mort cellulaire par apoptose, comme déterminé par fragmentation de l'ADN, et les effets ont été renversés par les ARNs antisens de ces miARN. Le prétraitement des cellules avec TIIA avant l'incubation avec la doxorubicine ou H2O2 a empêché surexpression de miR-34 et a réduit des apoptose. Nous avons ensuite établi BCL2L2, API5 et TCL1, en plus de BCL2, comme les gènes nouveaux cibles pour miR-34. Nous avons également élucidé que la répression des ces gènes par MiR-34 explique l'effet proapoptotique dans les cardiomyocytes. Ce que la régulation positive de ces gènes par TIIA realisée par la répression de l'expression de miR-34 est probable le mécanisme moléculaire de son effet bénéfique contre ischémique lésions cardiaques. / MiRNAs (miRNAs) have recently emerged as a central player of gene regulatory network involved in decision of cell fate. Apoptosis, an active process that leads to cell death, has been shown to be controlled by miRNAs. It has also been implicated in a variety of human disease, such as heart disease, and established as a target process for disease therapy. Tanshinone IIA (TIIA), a monomer of phenanthrenequinones used to treat cardiovascular diseases, is known to exert cardioprotective effects in myocardial infarction by targeting apoptosis through enhancing Bcl-2 expression. To explore the potential link between miRNAs and the anti-apoptotic action of TIIA, we studied the possible involvement of miRNAs. We found that expression of all three members of the miR-34 family, miR-34a, miR-34b and miR-34c that have been known to mediate the apoptotic effect of p53 in cancer cells, were robustly upregulated after exposure to either the DNA-damaging agent doxorubicin or pro-oxidant H2O2 for 24 hr in cultured neonatal rat ventricular myocytes. This upregulation caused significant apoptotic cell death, as determined by DNA fragmentation, and the effects were reversed by the antisense to these miRNAs. Pretreatment of cells with TIIA prior to incubation with doxorubicin or H2O2 prevented upregulation of miR-34 and reduced apoptosis. We then established BCL2L2, API5 and TCL1, in addition to BCL2, as the novel target genes for miR-34. We further unraveled that repression of these genes by miR-34 accounts for its proapoptotic effect in cardiomyocytes whereas upregulation of these genes by TIIA through downregulating miR-34 is likely the molecular mechanism for its beneficial effect against ischemic myocardial injuries.

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