Ao encontrar o conteúdo de probabilidade e estatística no ensino médio no Brasil, o aluno se depara com uma abordagem matemática da teoria, fruto de uma tradição escolar onde a matemática sempre foi ensinada de forma determinística, fornecendo resultados e resoluções de problemas como se fossem exatos dentro de diversos contextos. É o que verificamos em um referencial dos livros didáticos utilizados pelos professores nas escolas, em que encontramos um destaque para uma abordagem permeada por formalismos e excessivas fórmulas com notações da teoria dos conjuntos, com pouca ou por vezes ausência total de discussões que permitam uma visão consistente da teoria referente às disciplinas de probabilidade e estatística. Diante de tal cenário, muitos vieses de raciocínio são encontrados e citados frequentemente em trabalhos voltados para a formação de professores com foco na educação estatística, como erros e dificuldades na concepção de conceitos de probabilidade e estatística. Vamos abordar o trabalho de alguns autores sobre o raciocínio humano no que se refere a erros, vieses e falácias em uma variedade de padrões mentais. Os padrões são identificados como heurísticas utilizadas pelas pessoas ao julgar sob incerteza, em que elas se apoiam em um número limitado de princípios que reduzem o trabalho complexo mental de fornecer probabilidade e predizer valores por simples julgamentos de forma sistemática. Utilizaremos estes próprios princípios heurísticos em uma sondagem destes possíveis modelos mentais para, em seguida, serem aplicadas na forma de ações em sala de aula. A finalidade é tentar ampliar o espectro do raciocínio do aluno para que ele tenha mais embasamento ao fazer estimativas e previsões em diferentes contextos. Finalmente, estas atividades foram testadas para verificarmos sua efetividade diante de modelos mentais que podem persistir, como apontam as referências, mesmo em estudantes e profissionais suficientemente treinados em estatística. / To find the contents of probability and statistics in high school in Brazil, the student is faced with a mathematical approach to the theory, the result of a school tradition in which mathematics has always been taught in a deterministic way, providing results and troubleshooting as if they were accurate within different contexts. It is what we see in a reference textbooks used by teachers in schools, where we find a highlight for permeated approach formalities and excessive formulas with notations of set theory, with little or sometimes total lack of discussions to enable a consistent view theory related to the disciplines of probability and statistics. Faced with such a scenario, many reasoning biases are found and often cited in studies related to teacher education with a focus on statistics education, such as errors and difficulties in designing concepts of probability and statistics. We will address the work of some authors on human reasoning which concentrates errors, biases and fallacies in a variety of mental patterns. The patterns are identified as heuristics that people use in judging under uncertainty, where they rely on a limited number of principles that reduce complex mental work to provide probability and predict values for simple trials systematically. We will use these very principles heuristic in a survey of these possible mental models to then be applied, in a second step, actions in the classroom. The purpose is to try to broaden the spectrum of student reasoning so that it has more basis to make estimates and forecasts in different contexts. Finally, these activities were tested in order to verify its effectiveness before mental models that may persist, as shown by the references, even for students and sufficiently trained in statistical professionals.

Ethical decision-making is an important but challenging aspect of the role of a clinical psychologist. Little research has been conducted concerning how clinical psychologists make ethical decisions, with even less known about how trainees manage the process during professional training. The current study aimed to examine how trainees make ethical decisions, and how this process differs between more and less experienced trainees. Thirty-nine trainee clinical psychologists were recruited from a total of 17 doctoral training programmes in the United Kingdom. The sample recruited was demographically similar to the training population. A cross-sectional design was used to examine differences between first year (n = 19) and third year (n = 20) trainees. An online version of The Defining Issues Test questionnaire (DIT-2, Rest et al., 1999) was used to measure level of sophistication of ethical development, and individual face to face or Skype repertory grid interviews examined the integration of trainees’ personal and professional ethical decision-making construct subsystems. The vast majority of trainees were found to adopt a sophisticated approach to ethical decision-making, with half of all ethical decisions made from within a postconventional schematic approach. However, a small minority operated from within schemata based on maintenance of societal norms or personal interests. A deterioration in sophistication of thinking was demonstrated for more experienced trainees. Less experienced trainees were found to rely comparatively more heavily on their personal construct subsystems than more experienced trainees and vice versa. Increased integration between the subsystems over the course of training was demonstrated. The study demonstrates support for an acculturation process occurring throughout training. Implications of this and ideas for future research are discussed.

Ao encontrar o conteúdo de probabilidade e estatística no ensino médio no Brasil, o aluno se depara com uma abordagem matemática da teoria, fruto de uma tradição escolar onde a matemática sempre foi ensinada de forma determinística, fornecendo resultados e resoluções de problemas como se fossem exatos dentro de diversos contextos. É o que verificamos em um referencial dos livros didáticos utilizados pelos professores nas escolas, em que encontramos um destaque para uma abordagem permeada por formalismos e excessivas fórmulas com notações da teoria dos conjuntos, com pouca ou por vezes ausência total de discussões que permitam uma visão consistente da teoria referente às disciplinas de probabilidade e estatística. Diante de tal cenário, muitos vieses de raciocínio são encontrados e citados frequentemente em trabalhos voltados para a formação de professores com foco na educação estatística, como erros e dificuldades na concepção de conceitos de probabilidade e estatística. Vamos abordar o trabalho de alguns autores sobre o raciocínio humano no que se refere a erros, vieses e falácias em uma variedade de padrões mentais. Os padrões são identificados como heurísticas utilizadas pelas pessoas ao julgar sob incerteza, em que elas se apoiam em um número limitado de princípios que reduzem o trabalho complexo mental de fornecer probabilidade e predizer valores por simples julgamentos de forma sistemática. Utilizaremos estes próprios princípios heurísticos em uma sondagem destes possíveis modelos mentais para, em seguida, serem aplicadas na forma de ações em sala de aula. A finalidade é tentar ampliar o espectro do raciocínio do aluno para que ele tenha mais embasamento ao fazer estimativas e previsões em diferentes contextos. Finalmente, estas atividades foram testadas para verificarmos sua efetividade diante de modelos mentais que podem persistir, como apontam as referências, mesmo em estudantes e profissionais suficientemente treinados em estatística. / To find the contents of probability and statistics in high school in Brazil, the student is faced with a mathematical approach to the theory, the result of a school tradition in which mathematics has always been taught in a deterministic way, providing results and troubleshooting as if they were accurate within different contexts. It is what we see in a reference textbooks used by teachers in schools, where we find a highlight for permeated approach formalities and excessive formulas with notations of set theory, with little or sometimes total lack of discussions to enable a consistent view theory related to the disciplines of probability and statistics. Faced with such a scenario, many reasoning biases are found and often cited in studies related to teacher education with a focus on statistics education, such as errors and difficulties in designing concepts of probability and statistics. We will address the work of some authors on human reasoning which concentrates errors, biases and fallacies in a variety of mental patterns. The patterns are identified as heuristics that people use in judging under uncertainty, where they rely on a limited number of principles that reduce complex mental work to provide probability and predict values for simple trials systematically. We will use these very principles heuristic in a survey of these possible mental models to then be applied, in a second step, actions in the classroom. The purpose is to try to broaden the spectrum of student reasoning so that it has more basis to make estimates and forecasts in different contexts. Finally, these activities were tested in order to verify its effectiveness before mental models that may persist, as shown by the references, even for students and sufficiently trained in statistical professionals.

The purpose of the current study was to examine the effect of a blind selection process on gender discrimination. Due to persistent gender discrimination in selection processes, the intention of the current study was to investigate a blind selection process as a means to decrease gender discrimination against women. A total of 391 individuals were recruited through SONA and convenience sampling to participate in the current study. Materials included a selection scenario, three applicant résumés with applicant names and three with applicant ID numbers, a rank order form, and measures for procedural justice and fairness, modern sexism inventory, and the attitudes towards women scale. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions; one with applicant names, one with applicant ID numbers with no explanation for the ID numbers, and one with applicant ID numbers without an explanation. Results illustrated partial support for hypothesis 1a (H1a) and H2a, such that there was a significant difference in rank orders (H1a) and job suitability scores (H2a) as a function of condition assignment, though in the opposite direction than hypothesized. There was support for H1b, H1c, H2b, and H2c such that in blind conditions, qualified applicants received similar rank orders (H1b) and job suitability scores (H2b), while the unqualified applicant received the lowest rank order (H1c) and job suitability scores (H2c). Procedural justice scores were similar between the two blind conditions, and as such, H3a and H3b was not supported. Participants with an explanation perceived blind conditions as fair and non-blind conditions as unfair, thus H3c was supported. However, H3d was not supported, as participants without an explanation still perceived a blind process as fair and a non-blind process as unfair. Neither H4a nor H4b were supported, as sexism did not serve as a covariate with rank orders as a function of condition assignment. Last, H5 was not supported, as participants across all three conditions were similarly confident in their rank order decisions. Limitations included an imbalanced sample of primarily female (N = 320) psychology students (N = 380). Possible explanations for results obtained include the effects of similarity bias, identification, sophistication and education, and experimenter effects. Results expand the current body of literature in personnel selection processes and create implications for blind selection processes and practical use in organizations to decrease gender discrimination.

This graduate project was part of a group project completed by five school and district administrators in Hillsborough County, Florida. The project began because of our passion for teachers who are able to establish a culture of care in their classrooms that support students academically but transform their learning through experiences that enable them to be more highly engaged and productive students, regardless of ethnicity, socioeconomic status, perceived academic abilities, and backgrounds. My project component looked at research on teacher expectations and their effects on student success. Why does the color of a child's skin tone trigger lower expectations by some teachers? Why does this occur? How can school leaders and teachers confront preconceived notions that create barriers for high expectations for marginalized students? Selected literature was reviewed that concentrated on perspectives on teacher attitudes, systemic biases, and teacher expectations. I applied what I learned to exploring gaps in district emphasis on diversity and equity and potential approaches to engaging teachers and school leaders in collaborative and challenging conversation. In an examination of four major district documents, the terms ‘diversity of students’, ‘cultural diversity’, ‘high expectations for all students’, ‘multicultural awareness and equity’ each appeared only once. Professional development for teachers and school leaders was needed to focus on inquiry, self-reflection, curriculum development, and instructional approaches to surface and address implicit biases that contribute to low expectations for marginalized students.

It has been widely accepted that people do not always behave rationally when making decisions. However, cognitive biases are still of interest to a relatively small group (mostly working in the area of psychology) even though they have been introduced to a wider audience by Tversky and Kahneman&rsquo / s article in Science in 1974. It has already been shown that behavioral biases affect most decisions of people / therefore, they have an important role in a wide range of fields, from financial marketing to gambling. The purpose of this study is to investigate some cognitive biases (anchoring, reference point, probability judgment and risk propensity) in Turkey. In brief, anchoring bias is the fallacious effect of anchor values on decision making process, the presence of reference point bias proves that people are excessively affected by comparisons, probability judgment bias is the erroneous evaluation of probabilities, and risk propensity bias is the fallacious effect of the risk propensity levels on decision making processes. The relationships of these biases with individual cognitive ability levels and socioeconomic variables are also inspected. The data are collected by using a survey that is composed of the related measures which are taken from previous surveys in the literature. The sample is composed of a large number of participants (1575) from a wide range of socioeconomic statuses, from students to working professionals to retired individuals. The results lend support to the presence of a reference point bias, and an effect of risk propensity levels on decisions. However, an evidence which supports anchoring and probability judgment biases are failed to be found at a significant level. A significant relationship between cognitive ability level and risk propensity level is found. Moreover, demographic variables are also found to have an effect on the selected biases and cognitive ability.

In this study, I examine the influence of construals (interpretations) and mindsets on professional skepticism in auditors. Auditors have been criticized lately for not displaying enough professional skepticism, particularly in their audits of complex estimates (PCAOB 2008). Regulators speculate about and academic research shows a correlation between low professional skepticism and both audit failures and audit malpractice claims (Beasley et al. 2001; Anderson and Wolfe 2002). I hypothesize that prolonging the deliberative mindset in the audit judgment and decision-making process can increase professional skepticism in auditors. Experienced auditors take part in a 1 x 3 between-participants experiment in which they play the role of a senior auditor charged with evaluating a client's fair value estimate. I manipulate the type of mindset (deliberative or implemental) invoked by the evidence documentation instructions and have a third condition in which participants do not have to document audit evidence. Using multiple measures of professional skepticism, I find that auditors in the deliberative mindset condition display higher professional skepticism than both auditors in the implemental mindset condition and auditors in the no documentation condition. I further analyze the types of textual responses entered by the auditors and offer direction for future research in this area.

Although psychologists and sociologists have studied the origin and nature of European American children’s racial biases for decades, relatively little is known about the role of European American families in shaping their young children’s understanding of and attitudes about race. The primary goal of the current study was to examine European American mothers’ approaches to race-related issues with their children, with particular interest in exploring the ways mothers may influence their young children’s racial attitudes. I explored these questions by completing a multi-method study of 84 European American mothers and their four- to five-year-old children. Mothers read two books with race-related themes out loud to their children and then completed surveys concerning their race-related attitudes and behaviors while their children worked with a researcher to complete measures of cognitive skills and racial attitudes. Results indicated that European American mothers provide few race-related messages to their preschool-aged children. Specifically, mothers’ self-reports of their racial socialization strategies and their behaviors during the book reading session indicated that they are reluctant to discuss race explicitly. Furthermore, neither mother’s self-reported racial socialization strategies nor their behavior in the lab predicted their children’s racial attitudes. Instead, children’s racial attitudes were related to their mothers’ friendships. Those children whose mothers had a higher percentage of non-European Americans friends showed lower levels of racial biases than those children whose mothers had a lower percentage of non-European American friends. This study suggests that children’s racial attitudes are unaffected by mothers’ vague messages about diversity; instead, it seems that mothers need to engage in intimate, cross-race relations and send explicit, frequent race-related messages if they hope to influence their children’s racial attitudes. / text

Bakgrund: Det har i tidigare forskning visats att människor alltid påverkas av psykologiska fallgropar. Empiriska studier har tidigare genomförts med syfte att finna hanteringssätt att reducera psykologiska fallgropar. Vid litteraturstudien till denna uppsats påträffades dock ingen kvalitativ studie vilken berör hanteringen i praktiken varför det var av intresse att studera det genom intervjuer med svenska fondbolag. Då dessa empiriska studier till viss del utgått från praktiken vid skapandet av hypoteser gällande problematiken med psykologiska fallgropar var det även relevant att kartlägga på vilken kunskapsnivå svenska fondbolag befinner sig gällande behavioral finance som forskningsfält. Syfte: Denna uppsats syftar till att kartlägga och analysera svenska fondbolags kunskaper gällande behavioral finance som forskningsfält. Den ämnar även analysera om och i vilken mån hanteringssätt av psykologiska fallgropar, presenterade av tidigare forskning, i praktiken används av svenska fondbolag vid investeringsbeslut. Genomförande: För att uppnå uppsatsens syfte har ett kvalitativt tillvägagångssätt använts med utgångspunkt i åtta genomförda intervjuer med representanter från svenska fondbolag. Samtliga representanter har en övergripande insyn i hur fondförvaltningen går till på respektive fondbolag. Den insamlade empirin har dels analyserats utifrån en för denna uppsats framtagen analysmodell med syfte att kartlägga vart svenska fondbolag befinner sig kunskapsmässigt gällande behavioral finance, och dels utifrån tidigare empirisk forskning inom forskningsområdet. Slutsats: Uppsatsen lägger fram en ny hypotes vilken innebär att teoretiska förkunskaper om behavioral finance saknas i branschen samt att de hanteringssätt som används av svenska fondbolag till stor del inte reducerar psykologiska fallgropar. Det förklaras av att det till stor del inte finns stöd för svenska fondbolags hanteringssätt i tidigare forskningsresultat. / Background: Previous research has shown that people always are influenced by biases. Empirical studies have previously been conducted in order to find ways to reduce the biases. In the literature review for this thesis was however no qualitative study found which concerned the handling in practice, why it was of interest to study. Since the empirical studies, to some extent, have been based on practice when creating their hypotheses regarding the problem of biases, it was also relevant for this paper to survey the knowledge that Swedish fund companies currently have regarding behavioral finance as a research field. Aim: This paper aims to survey and analyse Swedish fund companies’ knowledge regarding behavioral finance as a research field. The paper also intends to analyse if and to what extent ways of handling biases, by previous research presented, in practice are used by Swedish fund companies when making investment decisions. Completion: To achieve the purpose of this paper, a qualitative approach has been used based on eight interviews conducted with representatives from Swedish fund companies. All representatives have an overall insight into how the fund management is done in respective fund companies. The collected empirical data has been analyzed partly on the basis of one, for this paper developed, analytical model with the aim to survey were Swedish fund companies are in terms of knowledge regarding behavioral finance, and partly on previous empirical research in the field of this research area. Conclusion: This paper table a new hypothesis which means that the industry lacks theoretical knowledge in behavioral finance and that the methods used by Swedish fund companies generally do not reduce biases. It is explained by the fact that a majority of the methods used by Swedish fund companies are not supported in precious research.

We disbelieve it; we deny it; we even disguise it; but racial prejudice continues to permeate the United States. As a result, researchers labor to determine variables that can reduce these attitudes and consequently, improve social behavior. Three confirmed conditions that can reduce racial attitudes include: (a) awareness to racial biases, (b) motivation for bias reduction, and (c) cognitive strategies for prejudice regulation. However, racial awareness are usually nonexistent for White Americans, and when introduced, racial awareness can cause negative outcomes, such as guilt or denial, that can decrease motivation to reduce one’s prejudice levels. The construct and practices of mindfulness may provide a solution to these limitations and help reduce racial prejudice levels for White individuals. The present dissertation explored the initial steps of this racial mindfulness program of research by first investigating the influence of White participants' degree of mindfulness on their racial prejudice levels using structural equation modeling. Because mindfulness can increase awareness to stimuli, mindfulness could meet the first prejudice reduction condition (i.e., raise awareness to racial stimuli), and therefore, reduce racial prejudice levels directly. In addition, mindfulness has been found to increase similar variables that influences motivation to reduce racial prejudice levels, such as empathy and interconnectedness. Therefore, White participants’ degree of mindfulness could decrease their racial prejudice levels indirectly as well. Results from this study indicated that mindfulness did not reduce racial prejudice levels directly or indirectly, although there were some methodology limitations that could have obscured the results. The next step investigated if White participants' degree of mindfulness can attenuate the negative affects that can arise when Whites first become aware of racial biases, as mindfulness has been found to mitigate ego defensiveness and negative emotions when one's self-esteem is threatened. Written reactions to a White privilege article from White participants identified as holding a high and low degree of general mindfulness were subject to content analysis. The results indicated that participants with a high degree of mindfulness exhibited greater awareness and acceptance to White privilege and less negative reactions. The findings support the need to create and explore a racial mindfulness intervention. / text