Os pesticidas organofosforados são amplamente utilizados na agricultura, pois são muito eficazes no controle de pragas, promovendo um aumento na produtividade dos alimentos. Contudo, sua utilização indiscriminada provoca graves problemas ambientais e para a saúde humana, uma vez que são tóxicos também para as espécies que não são alvos e acumulam grandes quantidades de metabólitos tóxicos, como por exemplo, fenois. Os compostos fenólicos enquadram-se nos resíduos resultantes da degradação de compostos naturais e xenobióticos da atividade antrópica. Este trabalho teve por objetivo estudar as reações de conjugação de fase II em compostos fenólicos derivados da hidrólise de pesticidas organosfosforados (clorpirifós, metil paration e profenofós) e a biotransformação de outros fenois por enzimas provenientes de fungos de ambiente marinho. Primeiramente foi realizado um screening com os fungos de ambiente marinho Aspergillus sydowii CBMAI 934, A. sydowii CBMAI 935, A. sydowii CBMAI 1241, Penicillium decaturense CBMAI 1234, P. raistrickii CBMAI 931, P. raistrickii CBMAI 1235 e Trichoderma sp. CBMAI 932 para avaliar a resistência destes microrganismos frente à toxicidade dos pesticidas organofosforados para posterior escolha da cepa mais resistente e melhor adaptada aos pesticidas testados nesse trabalho. O fungo selecionado para as reações em meio líquido de malte 2%, que melhor adaptou-se na presença dos pesticidas testados foi a cepa do fungo A. sydowii CBMAI 935. Foram realizadas curvas analíticas com o objetivo de estimar a extensão da biodegradação dos pesticidas clorpirifós, metil paration, profenofós e seus respectivos produtos de hidrólise, os fenois 3,5,6-tricloro-2-piridinol, 4-nitrofenol e 4-bromo-2-clorofenol, respectivamente. As reações de biotransformação em meio líquido de malte 2% foram avaliadas com 10, 20, 30 d de reação com concentração inicial dos pesticidas organofosforados de 50 mg.L-1. Todos os metabólitos encontrados nas reações de biotransformação dos pesticidas organofosforados com o fungo A. sydowii CBMAI 935 foram comparados com os seus padrões analíticos e sintéticos (metilação) com o objetivo de corroborar as reações de bioconjugação. Através deste estudo foi possível sugerir a presença de enzimas fosfotriesterases e enzimas metiltransferases provenientes do fungo A. sydowii CBMAI 935. Enzimas que promoveram a hidrólise e metilação dos pesticidas e compostos fenólicos testados nesse trabalho. Segundo a literatura, as reações de biotransforrmação e bioconjugação dos pesticidas orgafosforados, diminuem consideravelmente a toxicidade desses compostos recalcitrantes. / Organophosphate pesticides are widely used in agriculture, as they are very effective in pest control, promoting an increase in productivity of food. However, indiscriminate use causes serious problems environmental and for human health, since they are also toxic to non-target species and accumulate large amounts of toxic metabolites, such as phenols. Phenolic compounds are part of the waste resulting from the degradation of natural compounds and xenobiotics of human activity. This work aimed to study the phase II conjugation reactions in phenolic compounds derived from hydrolysis of pesticides organophosphates (chlorpyrifos, methyl parathion and profenofos) and the biotransformation of other phenols for enzymes from marine environment fungi. First was conducted a screening with the marine environment fungi. Aspergillus sydowii CBMAI 934, A. sydowii CBMAI 935, A. sydowii CBMAI 1241, Penicillium decaturense CBMAI 1234, P. raistrickii CBMAI 931, P. raistrickii CBMAI 1235 and Trichoderma sp. CBMAI 932 to evaluate the resistance of these microorganisms front the toxicity of organophosphate pesticides to later choose the most resistant strain and better adapted to pesticides tested in this work. The fungus selected to the reactions in liquid medium 2% malt, which best adapted in the presence of the pesticide tested was the fungal strain of A. sydowii CBMAI 935. Standard curves were performed in order to estimate the extent of biodegradation of pesticides chlorpyrifos, methyl parathion, profenofos and their hydrolysis products, phenols 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol, 4-nitrophenol and 4-bromo- 2-chlorophenol, respectively. The biotransformation reactions in liquid medium 2% malt were evaluated in 10, 20, 30 days reaction of with initial concentration of organophosphate pesticides of 50 mg.L-1. All metabolites found in the biotransformation reactions of organophosphate pesticides with the fungus A. sydowii CBMAI 935 were compared with their synthetic and analytical standards (methylation) in order to corroborate the bioconjugation reactions. Through this study was possible suggest the presence of enzymes phosphotriestesterases and methyltransferases from fungus A. sydowii CBMAI 935. Enzymes that promote hydrolysis and methylation of pesticides and phenolic compounds tested in this work. According to the literature, the reactions of biotransformation and biodegradation of organophosphate pesticides, greatly reduce the toxicity of recalcitrant compounds.

O ácido copálico é um diterpeno de esqueleto do tipo labdano descrito na literatura como um dos diterpenos majoritários e biomarcador do oleorresina das espécies do gênero Copaifera. Este oleorresina é muito utilizado na medicina popular e estudos feitos com oleorresinas de diferentes espécies revelaram várias atividades biológicas. Entretanto, não há informações sobre o metabolismo dos constituintes do oleorresina após absorção no organismo. Assim, neste trabalho foram realizados estudos de biotransformação do ácido copálico com micro-organismos que apresentam potencial para mimetizar reações que ocorrem em humanos e também com alguns microorganismos presentes no trato gastrointestinal humano. O ácido copálico foi obtido de oleorresina de Copaifera disponível no mercado nacional. Devido à complexidade química do oleorresina, houve necessidade de utilizar vários processos cromatográficos visando o isolamento do ácido copálico. Assim, foram utilizadas cromatografia sob pressão reduzida, cromatografia em coluna clássica e cromatografia em coluna clássica utilizando sílica impregnada com nitrato de prata. Partindo-se de 352,0 g de oleorresina foram isolados 1224,5 mg de ácido copálico, o qual foi identificado pelas análises dos espectros de ressonância magnética nuclear de hidrogênio e de carbono treze. O diterpeno isolado foi submetido à avaliação da atividade antimicrobiana frente aos microorganismos a serem avaliados nos processos de biotransformação, o que possibilitou estabelecer a quantidade máxima de ácido copálico a ser adicionada nas culturas dos diferentes micro-organismos sem causar interferência no desenvolvimento dos mesmos. Os fungos filamentosos Mucor rouxii e Aspergillus brasiliensis, bem como as bactérias do trato gastrointestinal Bifidobacterium sp., Lactobacillus acidophillus e Escherichia coli foram utilizados no processo de triagem visando selecionar o micro-organismo mais promissor para os estudos de biotransformação do ácido copálico. Também foram realizados estudos em cultura mista de Bifidobacterium sp., Lactobacillus acidophillus e Streptococcus salivarius subesp.thermophilus. O processo de biotransformação conduzido com o fungo filamentoso Mucor rouxii evidenciou o potencial deste para biotransformar o ácido copálico. Os extratos obtidos das culturas do fungo Mucor rouxii foram submetidos às análises por cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência com detecção por aerossol carregado e por arranjo de diodos, sendo detectados seis produtos de biotransformação que foram isolados por cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência em escala semi-preparativa. No processo de biotransformação realizado com o fungo filamentoso Aspergillus brasiliensis vários produtos foram detectados, mas com baixos rendimentos. Quanto aos estudos de biotransformação realizados com as bactérias, não foram detectados sinais de diterpenos nas culturas de Lactobacillus acidophilus e Bifidobacterium sp. isoladas e em cultura mista incubadas com ácido copálico por 24 horas. Nas culturas de Escherichia coli foram detectados sinais do ácido copálico, mas não de produtos de biotransformação. Seis produtos de biotransformação foram isolados da cultura desenvolvida com o fungo Mucor rouxii. Dois destes tiveram suas estruturas químicas elucidadas. Nos dois produtos ocorreram hidroxilações no C-3 e no C-13 e em um dos produtos ocorreu também hidroxilação no C-18. Não há descrição na literatura das estruturas químicas dos produtos elucidados. / Copalic acid is a labdane type diterpene which was reported in the literature as a major constituent and biomarker of the oil resin from Copaifera species. This oil resin has been used in popular medicine and studies carried out with different species showed several biological activities. However, there is no information regarding the metabolism of the constituents after absorption in organism. Therefore, biotransformation studies were carried out using microorganisms that showed potential to mimic reactions that occur in human and also with microorganisms from the gastrointestinal tract. Copalic acid was obtained from Copaifera oil resin available in national market. Due to the chemical complexity, it was necessary to perform different chromatographic procedures in order to isolate copalic acid. Column chromatography, column chromatography under reduced pressure and column chromatography using silica gel impregnated with silver nitrate were performed. Starting from 352.0 g of oil resin, 1224.5 mg of copalic acid were isolated and the chemical structure was determined by analysis of the hydrogen and carbon nuclear magnetic ressonance. The isolated diterpene was submitted to antimicrobial activity evaluation against the microorganisms used in the biotransformation processes which enable to establish the maximum amount of copalic acid to be added into the cultures without causing inhibitory effects. The filamentous fungi Mucor rouxii and Aspergillus brasiliensis, as well as the bacteria Bifidobacterium sp., Lactobacillus acidophillus and Escherichia coli from the gastrointestinal tract were screened to select the most promising microorganism for biotransformation studies. In addition, biotransformation processes were carried out using mixed cultures of Bifidobacterium sp., Lactobacillus acidophillus and Streptococcus salivarius subesp.thermophilus. The biotransformation process performed by the filamentous fungis Mucor rouxii showed the great potential of this fungus to biotransform copalic acid. The extracts from the cultures of the fungus Mucor rouxii were submitted to high performance liquid chromatography with both charged aerosol and photodiode array detection and six biotransformation products were isolated by using high performance liquid chromatography in semi-preparative mode. Several biotransformation products were detected in the biotransformation process performed by Aspergillus brasiliensis, but with low yield. Regarding the biotransformation processes performed by bacteria, biotransformation products were not detected in the isolated and mixed cultures of Lactobacillus acidophilus and Bifidobacterium sp. after 24 hours. Also, only the signals of copalic acid were detected in the cultures of Escherichia coli. Six biotransformation products were isolated from the culture of the fungus Mucor rouxii. The chemical structures of two products were elucidated. Hydroxyl groups were introduced at C-3 and C-13 in both compounds and another hydroxyl group was introduced at C-18 in only one compound. These structures were not reported before.

Muitas naftoquinonas como o lapachol, podem ser encontradas em plantas da família Bignoniaceae e são conhecidas por desempenharem diversas atividades biológicas, acompanhadas, entretanto, por efeitos indesejáveis. A atividade citotóxica apresentada pelas naftoquinonas está relacionada ao aparecimento de espécies reativas de oxigênio in vivo que causam severo estresse oxidativo no interior das células. O isolapachol e a atovaquona são análogos estruturais do lapachol, sendo que a atovaquona é comercializada como fármaco para o tratamento de malária e certos tipos de pneumonia. Devido ao grande potencial biológico apresentado pelas naftoquinonas, várias tentativas no sentido de obtenção de derivados desprovidos de efeitos colaterais vêm sendo realizadas. Além disso, a determinação da segurança e eficácia dos fármacos está intimamente ligada ao estudo da formação de derivados in vivo por ocasião do metabolismo. A utilização de fungos filamentosos na predição do metabolismo que os fármacos sofreriam após administração oral, bem como de bactérias do trato gastrointestinal, pode contribuir substancialmente para a elucidação da rota metabólica de fármacos fornecendo informações sobre a geração de substâncias farmacologicamente ativas, inativas ou tóxicas e ainda sobre a produção de substâncias capazes de inibir a biotransformação de outros fármacos. Estudos de biotransformação também podem contribuir para a obtenção de novos esqueletos químicos. Dessa forma, o presente trabalho relata estudos do metabolismo microbiano do lapachol e do seu sal de potássio por bactérias do trato gastrointestinal e fungos filamentosos, além da correlação desses com as reações que ocorrem quando o isolapachol e a atovaquona são utilizados como substratos para os mesmos micro-organismos. Os experimentos de biotransformação utilizando lapachol e seu sal de potássio foram conduzidos por até dez dias, em diferentes meios de cultura, empregando-se quatro linhagens de bactérias presentes no trato gastrointestinal, além de 11 linhagens de fungos filamentosos. Foram obtidos sete metabólitos, sendo dois inéditos e dois anteriormente detectados em estudos sobre o metabolismo do lapachol em mamíferos. Durante a realização dos experimentos com o fungo filamentoso Aspergillus brasiliensis verificou-se a capacidade desse fungo em mimetizar uma reação muito importante em química orgânica, conhecida como oxidação de Hooker. As condições mais promissoras para a biotransformação do lapachol foram utilizadas nos estudos com a atovaquona e o isolapachol. A biotransformação da atovaquona possibilitou, pela primeira vez, a caracterização estrutural de um metabólito desse fármaco. Já os estudos realizados com o isolapachol permitiram inferências sobre a especificidade enzimática apresentada pelos micro-organismos avaliados. Todos os metabólitos obtidos foram submetidos aos ensaios de citotoxicidade frente a linhagens celulares normais e tumorais, o que possibilitou obter conclusões sobre a relação estrutura-atividade e sobre a citotoxicidade seletiva apresentada pelos metabólitos. Destaca-se o resultado obtido com um dos metabólitos do lapachol, ?-xiloidona, o qual se mostrou mais tóxico para a linhagem tumoral que o lapachol e não apresentou toxicidade frente à linhagem normal. O metabólito obtido a partir da biotransformação da atovaquona apresentou maior toxicidade não seletiva que a substância de partida. / Several naphthoquinones, as lapachol, can be found in the Bignoniaceae family and they present several biological activities with some unwanted effects. The cytotoxic activity displayed by naphthoquinones is correlated to the presence of reactive oxygen species, which are formed in vivo and cause severe oxidative stress within cells. Isolapachol and atovaquone are structural analogs of lapachol, and atovaquone is in the market as a drug for the treatment of malaria and some types of pneumonia. Because of the great biological potential presented by naphthoquinones, several studies have been carried out to obtain derivatives without side effects. Furthermore, the drug safety and efficacy are closely related to the study of the formation of in vivo derivatives during metabolism. The filamentous fungi and the bacteria from the gastrointestinal tract can be used in the prediction of drug metabolism after oral administration, which is an interesting tool to elucidation of the metabolic pathway of drugs, providing information on the generation of pharmacologically active, inactive or toxic substances and still on the production of compounds able to inhibit the biotransformation of other drugs. Biotransformation studies can also contribute to the obtention of new chemical skeletons (hits). Thus, the present work reports the study about the microbial metabolism of lapachol and its potassium salt by filamentous fungi and bacteria from the gastrointestinal tract, beyond the correlation of the reactions that occur when the isolapachol and atovaquone are used as substrates for the same microorganisms. The biotransformations of lapachol and its potassium salt were evaluated for up to ten days, in different culture media, catalyzed by four bacteria from the gastrointestinal tract and 11 filamentous fungi strains. Seven metabolites were obtained, from which two are new and two were previously detected in the mammals metabolism of lapachol. The filamentous fungus Aspergillus brasiliensis showed to be capable of mimicking the Hooker oxidation, an important organic chemistry reaction. The best conditions for the lapachol biotransformation have been used in the studies with isolapachol and atovaquone. The atovaquone biotransformation provided, for the first time, the structural characterization of a metabolite from this drug. The studies with isolapachol allowed inferences about the enzyme specificity shown by the evaluated microorganisms. All obtained metabolites were submitted to cytotoxicity assays against human cancer and tumoral cell lines. Several conclusions about the structure activity relationship and about the selective cytotoxicity showed by the metabolites were taken. It should be highlighted the obtained result with a lapachol metabolite, ?-xyloidone, which showed to be more toxic than lapachol against tumoral cell line and did not show cytotoxicity to normal cell line. The atovaquone metabolite displayed higher toxicity than pattern structure, and this activity was not selective.

Toxicities of sulfur-based drugs have been attributed to formation of highly reactive sulfur oxo-acids and depletion of glutathione by the formation of reactive metabolites. Metabolic activation of these sulfur centers to conceivably toxic reactive metabolites (RMs) that can covalently modify proteins is considered the initial step in drug-induced toxicity. Despite considerable effort and research, detection and characterization of these RMs during drug development and therapy remains a challenge. Methimazole (MMI) and 6-propyl-2-thiouracil (PTU) are two commonly used antithyroid, sulfur-based drugs. Though effective, these drugs are associated with idiosyncratic toxicity. PTU has acquired a black box warning and physicians are calling for its withdrawal. RMs resulting from bioactivation of these drugs have been implicated in the aforementioned adverse reactions. Unfortunately, isolating and detecting RMs using traditional analytical techniques has not been successful due to their high reactivity and short life span, typically less than a minute. Current approaches in drug metabolism studies use microsomal incubations to generate RMs, which are then trapped using nucleophiles. Antithyroid drugs, however, are known to deactivate enzymes involved in their oxidation. Moreover, due to the complex nature of biological matrices and low abundance of possible toxic conjugates, this technique results in poor selectivity and sensitivity. This study developed and optimized an analytical method based on coupling electrochemical redox reactions and mass spectrometry to generate, detect and identify RMs from antithyroid drugs. The metabolites were also compared to those that were generated using chemical oxidants and biological microsomes. Mimicry of enzymatic oxidation of the antithyroid drugs was carried out by electrochemically oxidizing them using a coulometric cell coupled on-line to electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (EC/ESI-MS). Oxidation of MMI and subsequent trapping with nucleophile resulted in formation of adducts with N-acetylcysteine, revealing reactive metabolites. The most-postulated metabolite, sulfenic acid, had never been isolated or detected until now, using electrochemistry on-line with electrospray ionization. The results showed that bioactivation of MMI proceeds predominantly through the S-oxide and not through formation of thiyl radicals. These same trapping experiments were also conducted with PTU, but no conjugates were detected. The lack of conjugates from PTU does not preclude formation of RMs, but asserts radical pathway might be dominant in EC oxidation. A double mixing stopped flow was used to investigate the kinetics and mechanism of reaction of the MMI and the biologically relevant hypochlorous acid (HOCl), a product of oxidation of chloride (Cl-) ions by myeloperoxidase. The products from the chemical oxidations were compared to the electrochemically generated metabolites, some differences were apparent. Human liver microsomes (HLM) were also used, to investigate oxidation of PTU. Oxidation of PTU, resulted in the supposedly toxic S-oxide, but this has never been isolated, save for speculation. A comparison of metabolites that were found with HLM to those generated electrochemically showed some degree of similarity. These results show that in vitro techniques such as chemical oxidations and electrochemistry coupled to mass spectrometry can be used to mimic oxidative metabolism and subsequent high throughput screening of reactive metabolites.

Extract from milk thistle (Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn., synonym Carduus marianus L., Asteraceae) silymarin contains among others primarily bioactive flavonolignans. They have hepatoprotective and antioxidative effects and also anticancer, chemoprotective, dermatoprotective and hypocholesterolemic activity. This thesis focuses on the preparation of metabolites of the second phase of biotransformation unexplored flavonolignans 2,3-dehydrosilybin (DHSB), silychristin (SCH), 2,3-dehydrosilychristin (DHSCH). Pure sulfated derivatives were prepared using aryl sulfotransferase from Desulfitobacterium hafniense and p-nitrophenyl sulfate (p- NPS) as a donor. Flavonolignans yield exclusively monosulfates at the position C- 20 (C-19 in the case of silychristin and 2,3-dehydrosilychristin), except for 2,3- dehydrosilybin that gives also the 7,20-disulfated derivatives. For all samples were made antioxidant tests - DPPH assay (the highest activity had 2,3-dehydrosilychristin sulfate: IC50= 7,87 µM), Folin-Ciocalteau reduction assay (the highest activity had 2,3-dehydrosilychristin: 1,58 ekvivalents of gallic acid), ABTS+ scavenging (the highest activity had silychristin: 1,50 ekvivalents of vitamin C), inhibition of microsomal lipid peroxidation (the highest activity had 2,3-dehydrosilybin: IC50 = 10,6 µM),...

The ecological role of chironomids has been described as an abundant and ubiquitous prey item for not only aquatic species, but terrestrial and avian species as well. Global use of pesticides in urban and agricultural applications have introduced a potential threat not only to chironomid populations, but to the individuals that prey on chironomids. Chironomids direct contact with the sediment has resulted in both legacy and current-use pesticides being detected in the individuals throughout their life cycle. The capacity for contaminant uptake and biotransformation among each midge life stage and from larvae to adults, however, is poorly understood. The lipophilic compounds of focus for this thesis include bifenthrin, and p,p’-DDT, along with the biotransformation products, TFP acid, BP alcohol, BP acid, p,p’-DDE and p,p’- DDD. To observe bioaccumulation and biotransformation at each life stage (2nd,3rd,4th, pupae, and adult), month long exposures were run with a subset of individuals being removed at each life stage and processed to quantify total, parent, and biotransformation product concentrations. Exposures at low concentrations (below literature C. dilutus no observable adverse effects concentration) at 25°C produced mean C. dilutus total pesticide concentrations ranging from 36.31 to 896.1 μg/kg dw lipid for bifenthrin and from 41.64 to 877.7 μg/kg dw lipid for DDT through all life stages. The 3rd instar contained the highest parent bifenthrin concentration, though this concentration was not statistically different from the concentration in the pupae. The 3rd instar also contained the highest parent concentration of DDT, though concentrations were not statistically different from concentrations in 2nd to 3rd instar larvae. C. dilutus also displayed subsequent biotransformation of DDT to DDE in each instar. By the 4th instar, 87.10% of the total concentration in the midges was DDE and DDD. The biotransformation of DDT to DDD was also observed to occur in sediments and was likely due to direct reductive dechlorination through chemical processes. Chironomid uptake of DDD increased as the parent DDT was degraded to DDD in the sediments over the testing period. This study provides a greater understanding of the bioaccumulation and biotransformation potential in chironomids at each life stage. Initial spiking concentrations were too low, resulting in low body residues and with no method detection limit or reporting limit defined for the study, so these lower measures have limited certainty. Therefore, the implications of this thesis are limited.

Numerical models (GMS MODFLOW, SEAM3D, and SEAM3D Interface) were applied to simulate groundwater flow, petroleum hydrocarbon compound (PHC) transport and biodegradation, and the transport and biotransformation of chlorinated ethenes at Site FT-002 Plattsburgh Air Force Base (PAFB), NY. Site FT-002 was contaminated with waste jet fuel and chlorinated ethenes used as a fire source during fire fighting training. The results of groundwater analysis indicated that the aquifer exhibited aerobic, nitrate reducing, ferrogenic, sulfate reducing and methanogenic conditions due to the biodegradation of the PHCs. Additional groundwater analysis showed the biotransformation of TCE to DCE, VC, and ethene. A numerical model was developed to simulate and assess the extent to which reductive dechlorination and direct anaerobic oxidation were responsible for the biotransformation of the chlorinated ethenes. Reductive dechlorination accounted for the 100%, 98.3%, and 97.5% of the biotransformation of TCE, DCE, and VC respectively. Direct anaerobic oxidation accounted for 1.7% and 2.5% of the biotransformation of DCE and VC respectively. Though direct anaerobic oxidation only accounted for a small percentage of total biotransformation it was necessary to fully develop the biotransformation of the DCE and VC in the ferrogenic zone. This study focused on the mechanisms responsible for the biotransformation of chlorinated ethenes, specifically reductive dechlorination and direct anaerobic oxidation. By further defining the NAPL source and initial conditions it could be used as a tool to accurately predict the monitored natural attenuation (MNA) of the FT-002 contaminant plume. / Master of Science

Dominant genera of bacteria were isolated from three river waters during anthracene and pentachlorophenol biotransformation studies. The genera Pseudomonas, Acinetobacter, Micrococcus, Chromobacterium, Alcaligenes, Azomonos, Bacillus, and Flavobacterium were capable of biotransforming one or both of these compounds. These isolates were subjected to further biotransformation tests, including river water and a basal salt medium with and without additional glucose. The results of these experiments were evaluated statistically. It was concluded that only a limited number of the bacteria identified were able to transform these chemicals in river water. The addition of glucose to the growth medium significantly affected the biotransformation of these chemicals. It was also determined that the size of the initial bacterial population is not a factor in determining whether biotransformation of anthracene or pentachlorophenol can occur.

Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) are ubiquitous contaminants found worldwide in both engineered and natural systems. QACs are toxic to aquatic organisms and cause co-selection for antibiotic resistance, thus providing a reservoir of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, as well as antibiotic resistance genes in QAC-polluted environments. The objectives of the research presented here were to: a) systematically assess the fate and toxicity of QACs using quantitative structure-activity relationships (QSAR); b) evaluate the biotransformation potential of QACs under aerobic, anoxic and anaerobic conditions; and c) assess the potential toxicity of QACs biotransformation products. Nine QACs, belonging to three homologous groups -- monoalkonium, dialkonium and benzalkonium chlorides -- were the target QACs. The QACs critical micelle concentration (CMC) was determined. Then, the CMC was used as a descriptor to derive relationships between QAC structure and partitioning to biosolids as well as acute Microtox® toxicity. QACs with low CMCs had a relatively high adsorption affinity for biosolids and a lower toxicity than QACs with higher CMCs, which suggests that QACs that are more mobile and more (bio)available are more toxic. The biotransformation potential of benzalkonium chlorides (BAC) -- the most commonly used QACs found in engineered and natural biological systems -- under aerobic, methanogenic, nitrate reducing, and fermentative conditions was evaluated using bioenergetics and batch bioassays. The aerobic BAC biotransformation involved sequential dealkylation and debenzylation steps resulting in the formation of benzyl dimethyl amine, and dimethyl amine, respectively. The bacterial community involved in the aerobic BAC degradation was mainly composed of species belonging to the Pseudomonas genus. All QACs tested were recalcitrant under methanogenic conditions and inhibited methanogenesis at and above 25 mg QAC/L. Under nitrate reducing and fermentative conditions, BAC was transformed to alkyldimethyl amines via an abiotic reaction known as modified Hofmann degradation and a biotic reaction known as fumarate addition, respectively. Both reactions are based on a mechanism known as nucleophilic substitution. The discovery of BAC transformation by the above mentioned two reactions is the first ever report to document QAC transformation under anoxic/anaerobic conditions and delineate the transformation pathway.

Les nuages sont des systèmes multiphasiques (gaz, liquide, solide) dans lesquels la matière organique dissoute est soumise à de multiples transformations chimiques. Ces transformations en phase aqueuse de l’atmosphère sont supposées être uniquement le fait de processus abiotiques, majoritairement liés aux processus photochimiques et à la réactivité des radicaux libres (•OH, NO3•, HO2•, etc.). De récentes études ont montré la présence de microorganismes (bactéries, champignons dont levures) métaboliquement actifs dans les nuages. Ceci soulève la question de leur activité, en tant que biocatalyseurs dans la transformation des molécules organiques comme alternative aux voies photochimiques. L’objectif de ce travail est d’estimer dans quelle mesure la biomasse active peut impacter la chimie du nuage. Les analyses microbiologiques (ATP, cellules totales et cultivables, identifications taxonomiques) d’échantillons d’eau nuageuse collectés au sommet du puy de Dôme (1465 m) ont été réalisées de 2003 à 2010. Le contenu total en cellules microbiennes dans l’eau nuageuse est en moyenne de l’ordre de 1×105 cellules mL-1 pour les bactéries et de 1×104cellules mL-1 pour les champignons (dont levures). Les mesures de la concentration en ATP indiquent que la majorité des cellules microbiennes de l’eau du nuage est dans un état viable (valeur moyenne: ~ 4×10-6 pmol ATP cellule-1). Afin d’étudier l’influence biocatalytique de ces microorganismes dans le nuage, des solutions d’eau nuageuse naturelles et artificielles ont été incubées en présence de microorganismes et/ou d’irradiation UV (avec ou sans ajout de H2O2). Cela a permis d’évaluer la contribution des processus biocatalytiques et photo-induits (via la production de radicaux hydroxyle •OH) sur les transformations du méthanol, du formaldéhyde et des principaux acides carboxyliques présents dans l’eau nuageuse (acétate, formiate, oxalate, succinate et malonate). Les vitesses de bio- et de photo-transformation de ces composés organiques obtenues dans nos conditions expérimentales sont du même ordre de grandeur (excepté pour l’oxalate). L’acidité du milieu, ainsi que la présence d’irradiation UV et de radicaux •OH, ne semblent pas inhiber l’activité métabolique des microorganismes du nuage ; de plus, la biodégradation du H2O2 présent dans l’eau nuageuse naturelle par sa microflore endogène a également été observée. Cela implique que les microorganismes peuvent modifier le bilan carboné, mais aussi la capacité oxydante au sein de la phase aqueuse du nuage et par conséquent influer sur la chimie atmosphérique. / Clouds are multiphasic atmospheric systems in which the dissolved organic compounds, such as carboxylic acids, are subject to multiple chemical transformations in the aqueous phase. We investigated to which extent the active biomass (bacteria, yeasts and fungi) existing incloud water represents an alternative route to the chemical reactivity of organic compounds. Microbial analysis of cloud water sampled at the puy de Dôme Mountain (1465 m.a.s.l;France) has been performed between 2003 and 2010. In average, the total microbial cells content in cloud water was 1×105 cells mL-1 for bacteria, and 1×104 cells mL-1 for fungi and yeasts. The ATP cell concentration values measured in cloud water samples prove the existence of a metabolic activity into cloud droplets. To study the biocatalytic influence of viable microorganisms on organic compounds in cloud water, artificial and natural cloud water solutions were incubated in presence of cultivable cells in the dark or under UV irradiation (with and without H2O2 addition). Contribution of biocatalytic and photo-induced processes (via •OH radicals production) over transformation of methanol, formaldehyde and the main carboxylic acids present in cloud water (acetate,formate, oxalate, succinate and malonate) were determined from these experiments. Bio- and photo-transformation rates of these organic compounds obtained in our experimental conditions are in the same range of order (except for oxalate). Microorganisms present in the natural cloud samples are not damaged or metabolically inactivated by the acidity of the cloud water, and by the presence of UV radiation and •OH radicals. H2O2 present in the natural cloud water samples was also biodegraded during the incubation-time by the endogenous microflora. This study shows that microorganisms could affect the carbon budget, but also the oxidative capacity of the cloud aqueous phase and consequently could influence the atmospheric chemistry.