Abstract The study mapped various aspects of buprenorfine (Subutex \regm{}, herein S) abuse among opiate-dependent community. It analyses three sources of data, questionnaires distributed in general problem drug-users community ({\clq}non-substitution sample{\crq}, n = 64), questionnaires distributed among patients of buprenorphine substitution treatment ({\clq}substitution sample{\crq}, n = 42), and semi-structured moderated interviews conducted with S users attending low-threshold contact centre in Ceske Budejovice (n = 15). Prevalence of non-commissioned S abuse was 57% of the non-substitution sample and 21% of the sample claimed S as their primary drug. Illicit market prices range from prescription price to its multiple of eight, are higher in small towns and during weekends, and lower in case of close relationships between the seller and buyer. There are no regular big dealers in the community, and the contracts are rather based on close acquaintance among baseline users. The user view S price and availability as worse/higher than in case of marihuana, comparable with hallucinogens and ecstasy, and better/cheaper than metamphetamine and heroin. The main driver for buying was occasional abuse over the prescription dose, the main incentive to sell was to help a friend. Illicit S users view substitution treatment as a chance how to reduce their drugrelated expenses and stabilise their life, but some are repelled by strict treatment rules. Both licit and illicit users displayed comparably high (over 90%) prevalence of injection use; they typically understand the risks, but explain the injection use by their psychological attachment to the injection ritual. An indisputably positive aspect of substitution treatment is lower total number of drugs abused by individual patients, compared to general drug-abusing population. Illicit S market bears only marginal societal risks and its existence is rather positive with respect to harm reduction philosophy, as it supplies the community of illicit drug users with cheaper and safer alternative to street opiates.

La disponibilité des médicaments analgésiques est limitée en médecine vétérinaire féline. Le but de cette étude était d'investiguer les propriétés anti-nociceptiques d'une nouvelle formule de buprénorphine (Simbadol, 1.8 mg ml-1) et tapentadol chez les chats. Six chats étaient inclus dans deux études différentes, les deux étant prospectives, randomisées, croisées, et aveuglées. Dans la première étude, Simbadol (1.8 mg mL-1) a été administré par voies sous-cutanée (SC;0.24 mg kg-1), intraveineuse (IV; 0.12 mg kg-1) et buccale (OTM; 0.12 mg kg-1) et les seuils thermiques ont été comparés avec ceux d'un groupe contrôle contenant de la saline (SAL; saline SC). Les concentrations plasmatiques de buprénorphine et norbuprénorphine ont été mesurées jusqu'à 72 heures suivant chaque traitement de buprénorphine. Un modèle pharmacocinétique-pharmacodynamique adapté à 2 substances et 3 voies d'administration a été utilisé. Dans la deuxième étude, les seuils thermiques ont été comparés entre les chats recevant de la buprénorphine (0.02 mg kg−1, IM), un placébo (50 mg de dextrose oral) et deux doses de tapentadol oralement (dose réduite: 25 mg; dose élevée: 50 mg) L'administration sous-cutanée de Simbadol a provoqué une anti-nociception thermique de longue durée (≥ 24 heures). Ces effets étaient prolongés comparativement aux traitements intraveineux (8 heures) et buccal (12 heures). Le modèle conjoint de pharmacocinétique/pharmacodynamique a démontré des concentrations plasmatiques prolongée pour la voie sous-cutanée. Les deux doses de tapentadol ont augmenté l'antinociception thermique chez les chats. La dose élevée de tapentadol a produit une durée d'antinociception similaire à celle de la buprénorphine (2 heures) et deux fois plus longue que la dose réduite. La palatabilité de la médication représente une limite significative de la voie d'administration. Simbadol et tapentadol produisent une antinociception thermique comparée à la saline. Des investigations cliniques supplémentaires seront nécessaires. / Analgesic drug availability is limited in feline practice. The aim of these studies was to investigate the antinociceptive properties of a novel formulation of buprenorphine (Simbadol, 1.8 mg ml-1) and tapentadol in cats. In two separate studies, six healthy cats (each) were included in a prospective, randomised, blinded, crossover study. In study I, Simbadol (1.8 mg mL-1) was administered by various routes: subcutaneous (SC; 0.24 mg kg-1), intravenous (IV; 0.12 mg kg-1) or buccal (OTM; 0.12 mg kg-1) route of administration and thermal thresholds (TT) were compared with a saline group (SAL; saline SC). Plasma buprenorphine and norbuprenorphine concentrations were measured up to 72 hours following each buprenorphine treatment. A bespoke pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic model fitted data from two analytes/three routes of administration. In study II, thermal thresholds were compared among cats receiving buprenorphine (0.02 mg kg−1, IM), placebo (50 mg oral dextrose) and two doses of oral tapentadol (low-dose 25 mg; high-dose 50 mg). Subcutaneous administration of Simbadol provided long-lasting thermal antinociception (≥ 24 hours). These effects are prolonged compared with the IV (8 hours) and OTM (12 hours) treatments. Joint pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic modelling demonstrated prolonged plasma concentrations for the SC route. Both doses of tapentadol increased thermal antinociception in cats. The high-dose of tapentadol produced similar duration of antinociception as intramuscular buprenorphine (2 hours) and twice as long as the low-dose. Palatability presented a significant limitation to the drug’s administration. Simbadol and tapentadol produced thermal antinociception when compared with saline. Additional investigation is necessary to determine if this translates to the clinical setting.

Background: In many countries, the opioid agonists, buprenorphine and methadone, are licensed for maintenance treatment of opioid dependence. Many short-term studies have been performed, but little is known about long-term effects. Therefore, this study described over 6 years (1) mortality, retention and abstinence rates and (2) changes in concomitant drug use and somatic and mental health. Methods: A prevalence sample of n = 2,694 maintenance patients, recruited from a nationally representative sample of n = 223 substitution doctors, was evaluated in a 6-year prospectivelongitudinal naturalistic study. At 72 months, n = 1,624 patients were assessed for outcome; 1,147 had full outcome data, 346 primary outcome data and 131 had died; 660 individuals were lost to follow-up. Results: The 6-year retention rate was 76.6%; the average mortality rate was 1.1%. During follow-up, 9.4% of patients became “abstinent” and 1.9% were referred for drug-free addiction treatment. Concomitant drug use decreased and somatic health status and social parameters improved. Conclusions: The study provides further evidence for the efficacy and safety of maintenance treatment with opioid agonists. In the long term, the number of opioid-free patients is low and most patients are more or less continuously under opioid maintenance therapy. Further implications are discussed.

Les opioïdes peuvent être responsables, en cas d’intoxication, d’une dépression respiratoire mortelle. Deux opioïdes ont un profil de toxicité particulier. La buprénorphine, seule, a des effets respiratoires plafonnés alors qu’administrée avec des benzodiazépines elle peut être à l’origine d’une dépression respiratoire mortelle. Le tramadol, dans un contexte d’intoxication aigue, entraine dans 20% des cas des convulsions. Les mécanismes de ces toxicités sont inconnus.L’objectif de cette thèse était d’étudier de façon multimodale les mécanismes impliqués dans ces deux types de toxicité en incluant des données pharmacodynamiques et neuropharmacocinétiques in vivo. Pour la buprénorphine, nous avons montré que la dépression respiratoire observée avec le diazépam ne résultait pas d’une interaction neuropharmacocinétique/réceptologique centrale (imagerie TEP 11C- buprénorphine). En revanche, les données physiologiques respiratoires (pléthysmographie, gaz du sang, électromyographie) et leur réversion par les antagonistes des récepteurs opioïdes et de l’acide γ-aminobutyrique (GABA) étaient en faveur d’une interaction pharmacodynamique. Pour le tramadol, nous avons montré que les convulsions n’impliquaient pas les systèmes noradrénergiques, dopaminergiques, sérotoninergiques ou opioïdergiques. Le tramadol agissait comme un modulateur allostérique négatif du site de liaison des benzodiazépines des récepteurs GABA-A (imagerie TEP 11C-flumazénil). Par cette approche multimodale in vivo chez le rat, nous avons pu déterminer que les interactions entre les opioïdes et le système GABAergique jouent un rôle majeur dans les profils de toxicité spécifique de la buprénorphine et du tramadol. / Opioids overdose may be responsible for respiratory depression. Nevertheless, two molecules exhibit particular toxicity patterns. Buprenorphine induces ceiling respiratory effects even at high doses. However, several deaths have been reported, mainly when buprenorphine was co-administered with benzodiazepines. Tramadol is a µ-opioid receptor agonist that induces seizures in 20% of poisoning cases. The exact mechanisms involved in both toxicity remain poorly understood. The aim of our investigation was to study the mechanisms involved in these two types of toxicity using a multimodal approach including pharmacodynamic data and in vivo brain neuropharmacokinetics. Regarding buprenorphine, we have shown that respiratory depression with diazepam does not result from neuropharmacokinetic/receptologic interaction (11C-buprenorphine PET imaging) Conversely, the study of respiratory parameters (plethysmography, blood gas, electromyogram) and their antagonization by opioid and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptors antagonists supported interactions mediated by the addition of the pharmacodynamic effects of each molecule. Regarding tramadol, we showed that seizures did not involve the noradrenergic, dopaminergic, serotoninergic or opioidergic systems. Conversely, they involve the GABA-ergic system; tramadol acts as negative allosteric modulator of the benzodiazepine site of the GABA-A receptor (11C-flumazenil PET imaging). Using a multimodal in vivo approach in the rat, we have been able to determine that the interactions between opioids and the GABAergic system play a major role in mechanisms of toxicity of buprenorphine and tramadol.

Background: In many countries, buprenorphine and methadone are licensed for the maintenance treatment (MT) of opioid dependence. Despite many short-term studies, little is known about the long-term (12-month) effects of these treatments in different settings, i.e. primary care-based (PMC) and specialized substitution centers (SSCs). Objectives: To describe over a period of 12 months: (1) mortality, retention and abstinence rates; (2) changes in concomitant drug use, somatic and mental health; and (3) to explore differences between different types of provider settings. Methods: 12-Month prospective-longitudinal naturalistic study with four waves of assessment in a prevalence sample of N= 2694 maintenance patients, recruited from a nationally representative sample of N= 223 substitution physicians. Results: The 12-month retention rate was 75%; the mortality rate 1.1%. 4.1% of patients became “abstinent” during follow-up. 7% were referred to drug-free addiction treatment. Concomitant drug use decreased and somatic health status improved. No significant improvements were observed for mental health and quality of life. When controlling for initial severity, small PMC settings revealed better retention, abstinence and concomitant drug use rates. Conclusion: The study underlines the overall 12-month effectiveness of various forms of agonist MT. Findings reveal relatively high retention rates, low mortality rates, and improvements in most 12-month outcome domains, except for mental health and quality of life. PMC settings appear to be a good additional option to improve access to MTs.

Background Buprenorphine is a semi-synthetic opioid used for the treatment of opioid dependence. Opioid use, including buprenorphine, has been increasing in recent years, in the general population and in pregnant women. Consequently, there has been a rise in frequency of neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS), associated with buprenorphine use during pregnancy. The purpose of this study was to investigate correlations between buprenorphine and buprenorphine-metabolite concentrations in cord blood and onset of NAS in buprenorphine exposed newborns. Methods Nineteen (19) newborns who met inclusion criteria were followed after birth until discharge in a double-blind non-intervention study, after maternal consent. Cord blood and tissue samples were collected and analyzed by liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC–MS) for buprenorphine and metabolites. Simple and multiple logistic regressions were used to examine relationships between buprenorphine and buprenorphine metabolite concentrations in cord blood and onset of NAS, need for morphine therapy, and length of stay. Results Each increase in 5 ng/ml level of norbuprenorphine in cord blood increases odds of requiring treatment by morphine 2.5 times. Each increase in 5 ng/ml of buprenorphine-glucuronide decreases odds of receiving morphine by 57.7 %. Along with concentration of buprenorphine metabolites, birth weight and gestational age also play important roles, but not maternal buprenorphine dose. Conclusions LC–MS analysis of cord blood concentrations of buprenorphine and metabolites is an effective way to examine drug and metabolite levels in the infant at birth. Cord blood concentrations of the active norbuprenorphine metabolite and the inactive buprenorphine-glucuronide metabolite show promise in predicting necessity of treatment of NAS. These finding have implications in improving patient care and reducing healthcare costs if confirmed in a larger sample.

The United States experiences opioid addiction at epidemic levels. In 2012, the National Institute of Drug Abuse reported that 23.1 million Americans were in need of addiction treatment services, although only 2.5 million were enrolled in treatment. Following an amendment to the Drug Addiction Treatment Act of 2000 (Public Law 106-310), advanced practice nurses were qualified as providers who could bridge the healthcare gap in treatment access. The purpose of this project was to determine the interest of advanced practice nurses in (a) prescribing buprenorphine and (b) establishing guidelines that would allow them to do so. This quantitative project used a 10-question Internet-based survey with a convenience sample of 95 nurses (recruited online) who were currently practicing in advanced nursing roles. Social media platforms, including Facebook, were used to recruit participants. The survey included questions about expanding the scope of practice in addiction treatment and establishing guidelines that would allow nursing knowledge and expertise to be used in outpatient opiate addiction treatment. Critical social theory and Kingdon's theory of policy analysis were applied to support the project. The Survey Monkey data analysis tool was used to generate descriptive statistics, which demonstrated respondents' support for an expanded scope of practice. If the recommendations of this project are adopted by national legislation, increased accessibility to addiction treatment services will save millions of dollars in justice system, healthcare system, employment, and societal costs. Nursing policy advocates nationally can apply these results to support efforts to expand scope of practice to include prescribing buprenorphine.

Background: Patients engaged in evidence-based opioid use disorder (OUD) treatment can obtain prescriptions for buprenorphine containing products from specially trained physicians that are subsequently dispensed by community pharmacists. Despite the involvement of physicians and community pharmacists in buprenorphine prescribing and dispensing, respectively, our understanding of their interactions in this context is limited. Objective: To qualitatively describe the communication and collaborative experiences between Drug Addiction Treatment Act 2000 (DATA)-waivered physicians and community pharmacists from the perspective of the physician. Methods: Ten key informant interviews were conducted with DATA-waivered physicians practicing in Northeast Tennessee. A semi-structured interview guide was used to explore communication and collaborative experiences between the physicians and community pharmacists. Interviews were audio recorded and transcribed verbatim. A coding frame was developed using concepts from the scientific literature and emerging codes from physician interviews. Interviews were coded using NVivo 11, with the data subsequently organized and evaluated for themes. Results: Four themes were identified: (1) mechanics of communication; (2) role specification and expectations; (3) education and understanding; and (4) climate of clinical practice. Physician-pharmacist communication primarily occurred indirectly through patients or staff and perceived challenges to collaboration included; lack of trust, stigma, and fear of regulatory oversight. Physicians also indicated the two professionals may lack clear roles and responsibilities as well as common expectations for treatment plans. Conclusions: Communication between DATA-waivered physicians and community pharmacists is influenced by multiple factors. Further research is warranted to improve physician-community pharmacist collaboration (PCPC) in the context of OUD pharmacotherapy and addiction treatment.

Opioid use disorder (OUD) impacts 5.6 million people in the US. Buprenorphine (BUP) is a commonly prescribed opioid medication used to treat OUD, including in pregnant women. However, opioid use during pregnancy is associated with poorer infant outcomes including reduced fetal growth, neurodevelopmental deficits, and neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome (NOWS). Recent clinical data suggests that providing mothers with a lower dose of BUP may result in fewer negative outcomes in infants. Here, a preclinical rodent model of low-dose perinatal BUP exposure was used to study offspring health outcomes in the neonate, juvenile, and adolescent offspring. Dams were given clinically relevant doses of BUP prior to and throughout gestation, and continuing through weaning to mimic human doses and exposure. Although the lowest BUP dose still elicited signs of NOWS in offspring, there were fewer negative effects on overall brain morphology across the early lifespan than that of the higher BUP dose compared to controls.

Les maladies bucco-dentaires sont fréquemment rapportées en médecine vétérinaire et le traitement généralement nécessite l’extraction des dents. Cependant, la procédure est invasive et une évaluation à long terme ainsi qu’une gestion de la douleur sont nécessaires. En médecine vétérinaire, les opioïdes, les blocs anesthésiques locaux et les anti-inflammatoires non stéroïdiens sont administrés en intervention analgésique péri-opératoire. Par exemple, la buprénorphine est un opioïde analgésique puissant, hautement lipophile, et est principalement utilisé pour traiter la douleur aiguë. La buprénorphine est souvent administrée dans le cadre d'une analgésie multimodale. Les signes comportementaux de la douleur induite par les maladies bucco-dentaires n'ont pas été systématiquement étudiés chez les chats, et les connaissances actuelles sont principalement basées sur des preuves anecdotiques ou des études réalisées chez d'autres espèces. On ignore comment les maladies bucco-dentaires et le traitement (c'est-à-dire l'extraction dentaire) peuvent affecter la prise alimentaire péri-opératoire, les scores de douleur, les besoins analgésiques supplémentaires et les comportements chez les chats. En outre, il serait important de savoir si l’échelle de douleur basée sur l'expression faciale (Feline Grimace Scale: FGS) pourrait également être utilisée pour l'évaluation de la douleur buccale. Les objectifs du projet étaient 1) d'identifier les comportements spécifiques associés aux maladies bucco-dentaires en utilisant une évaluation par vidéo, et de les corréler aux scores de la douleur en temps réel, 2) d'évaluer l'impact des maladies bucco-dentaires et de la douleur sur la prise alimentaire et les comportements liés à l'alimentation, 3) de déterminer les effets du traitement des maladies bucco-dentaires sur le comportement, les scores de la douleur et la prise alimentaire, 4) d’évaluer la fiabilité inter-évaluateurs du FGS et 5) pour évaluer l'efficacité analgésique et les événements indésirables d'une formulation à haute concentration de formulation de chlorhydrate de buprénorphine (Simbadol, 1,8 mg / mL) en comparaison avec une formulation standard de chlorhydrate de buprénorphine (Vetergesic, 0,3 mg / mL) dans le cadre d'un schéma multimodal chez les chats subissant des extractions dentaires. Les hypothèses étaient que 1) des comportements spécifiques pourraient être identifiés et corrélés aux scores de la douleur en temps réel, 2) les chats atteints d'une maladie bucco-dentaire sévère auraient une consommation alimentaire plus faible et des scores de douleur plus élevés et nécessiteraient une analgésie de secours comparativement aux chats qui ne sont pas / minimalement atteints par une maladie bucco-dentaire, 3) le traitement des maladies bucco-dentaires réduirait la prévalence des comportements spécifiques ainsi que les scores de douleur et améliorerait la consommation alimentaire de ces animaux, 4) les scores FGS notés par différents évaluateurs seraient fiables et 5) Simbadol et Vetergesic produiraient tous deux des scores de douleur postopératoire, des événements indésirables, ainsi que le moment et la prévalence de l'analgésie de secours similaires lors de l'utilisation du Glasgow Composite Measure Pain Scale-Feline (CMPS-F). Le projet a été divisé en deux études et quatre articles (étude 1: articles 1 à 3, étude 2: article 4): 1) article sur le score de la douleur, les besoins en analgésie de secours et la quantité de nourriture ingérée chez les chats subissant un traitement oral, 2) article sur les comportements spécifiques induits par la douleur liés à la douleur buccale chez les chats sous traitement oral, 3) article sur la fiabilité inter-évaluateurs de la FGS chez les chats sous traitement oral, et 4) comparaison détaillée de l'efficacité analgésique de deux schémas posologiques en utilisant deux concentrations différentes de buprénorphine chez les chats subissant des extractions dentaires. Dans le premier article, vingt-quatre chats ont été répartis également en deux groupes: un groupe qui représente des maladies bucco-dentaires légères (traitement dentaire minimal) et un autre sévères (extractions dentaires multiples) sur la base d'un système de notation dentaire qui impliquait le nombre et l'emplacement de l'extraction des dents et hospitalisés pendant 7 jours (admission au jour 0, examen bucco-dentaire, radiographies et traitement sous anesthésie générale le jour 1 et sortie le jour 6). Pendant l'hospitalisation, les scores de douleur basés sur l'échelle composite de Glasgow (CMPS-F), la prévalence de l'analgésie de secours (CMPS-F ≥ 5/20), la prise d'aliments secs et mous (%) pendant 3 minutes et 2 heures, l'apport quotidien d'aliments mous et les cytokines inflammatoires sériques ont été analysés. Dans le deuxième article, les chats ont été filmés à distance pendant 10 min tout au long de l'étude à différents moments (au total 36h d'enregistrement vidéo). Les vidéos se composaient de quatre parties soit les comportements généraux, de jeu, d'alimentation et post-alimentation. La durée et la fréquence des différents comportements basés sur un éthogramme ont été analysées. Dans le troixième article, quatre-vingt-onze captures d'images (c'est-à-dire des captures d'écran) à partir de vidéos filmées aux jours 1 (postopératoire 6 heures) et 6 pour l'article 2 et des vidéos filmées avant / après l'analgésie de sauvetage ont été incluses. Le FGS comprend cinq unités d'action (AU): les yeux, les oreilles, le museau, les moustaches et la position de la tête. Les scores FGS des images ont été évalués indépendamment par quatre évaluateurs en aveugle. La fiabilité inter-évaluateurs de chaque score AU et FGS total et l'effet de la présence du soignant ont été évalués. Dans l'étude 2 (article 4), vingt-trois chats subissant des extractions dentaires ont été inclus. Les chats ont reçu aléatoirement soit Simbadol (1.8 mg/mL; 0.24 mg/kg SC, toutes les 24 heures, n = 11) ou Vetergesic (0.3 mg/mL; 0.02 mg/kg IM, toutes les 8 h, n = 12) tout au long de l'étude. Ils ont été admis au jour 0, ont subi un examen oral, des radiographies et un traitement sous anesthésie générale le jour 1 et ont été libérés le jour 4. La sédation et la douleur ont été évaluées à l'aide de l'échelle visuelle analogique interactive dynamique (jour 1) et CMPS-F, respectivement. Les scores de sédation, de douleur et la prévalence de l'analgésie de secours (CMPS-F ≥ 5/20) et du ressentiment (défini comme tout type de comportement d'évitement associé à l'aversion pour l'administration de médicaments) ont été analysés statistiquement. Les études ont montré que les scores de la douleur et la prévalence de l'analgésie de secours étaient significativement élevés, ainsi que les apports d'aliments secs et mous étaient significativement diminués chez les chats atteints d'une maladie grave par rapport à ceux présentant une maladie légère. De surcroit, la maladie buccale influence les cytokines inflammatoires et induit des comportements. Par ailleurs, Le FGS est un outil fiable pour l’évaluation de la douleur buccale et n’est pas affecté par la présence du soignant. En outre, les scores de la douleur et la prévalence de l'analgésie de secours chez les chats auxquels Simbadol a été administré n'étaient pas significativement différents de ceux administrés par Vetergesic. De plus, certains chats administrés par Vetergesic ont développé un ressentiment à l'égard de l'administration du médicament, qui n'était pas significativement différent de ceux administrés par Simbadol. Une analgésie à long terme est nécessaire après des extractions dentaires chez les chats atteints d'une maladie bucco-dentaire sévère. La diminution de l'apport alimentaire et les comportements spécifiques identifiés dans les études pourraient être utilisés pour différencier entre les chats douloureux des chats indolores dans la pratique clinique. Le FGS est un outil fiable pour l'évaluation de la douleur chez les chats subissant des extractions dentaires. Simbadol a produit des effets analgésiques similaires à Vetergesic sans induire un ressentiment pendant l'administration du médicament. / Oral disease is one of the most commonly reported diseases in veterinary medicine, and tooth extractions are commonly required as the treatment. The procedure, however, is invasive, and long-term pain management is necessary. In veterinary medicine, opioids, local anesthetic blocks and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are administered as perioperative analgesic intervention. Behavioral signs of oral disease-induced pain have not been systematically investigated in cats, and the current knowledge is mostly based on anecdotal evidence or studies performed in other species. It is not known how oral disease and the treatment (i.e. tooth extractions) can affect perioperative food intake, pain scores, additional analgesic requirements and behaviors in cats. Also, it is not known if a facial expression-based pain scale (Feline Grimace Scale: FGS) could be used for oral pain assessment as well. The objectives of this PhD program were: 1) to identify the specific behaviors associated with oral disease by using video assessment, and to verify their correlation with the real-time pain scores, 2) to assess the impact of oral disease and pain on food intake and feeding-related behaviors, 3) to determine the effects of oral disease treatment on behavior, pain scores and food intake, 4) to assess the inter-rater reliability of the FGS in cats undergoing dental extractions and 5) to evaluate the analgesic efficacy and adverse events of a high-concentration formulation of buprenorphine hydrochloride formulation (Simbadol, 1.8 mg/mL) in comparison with a standard buprenorphine hydrochloride formulation (Vetergesic, 0.3 mg/mL) as part of a multimodal regimen in cats undergoing dental extractions. The hypotheses were: 1) specific behaviors associated with oral disease would be identified and correlated with real-time pain scores, 2) cats with severe oral disease would have lower food intake and higher pain scores, and require rescue analgesia when compared with cats with no/minimal oral disease, 3) treatment of oral disease would reduce the prevalence of specific behaviors and pain scores and improve food consumption of these animals, 4) the FGS scores scored by different raters would be reliable in cats undergoing dental extractions and 5) both Simbadol and Vetergesic would produce similar postoperative pain scores, adverse events and timing and prevalence of rescue analgesia when using the Glasgow Composite Measure Pain Scale-Feline (CMPS-F). The project was divided into two studies and four articles (study 1: articles 1-3, study 2: article 4): 1) investigation of pain scores, rescue analgesia requirements and the amount of food intake in cats undergoing oral treatment, 2) investigation of the pain-induced specific behaviors related to oral pain in cats undergoing oral treatment, 3) investigation of inter-rater reliability of FGS in cats undergoing oral treatment, and 4) comparison of the analgesic efficacy of two dosage regimens using two different concentrations of buprenorphine in cats undergoing dental extractions. In article 1, twenty-four cats were equally divided into minimal (minimal dental treatment) or severe (multiple dental extractions) oral disease groups based on a dental scoring system which involved the number and location of teeth extraction and hospitalized for 7 days (admission on day 0, oral examination, radiographs and treatment under general anesthesia on day 1 and discharge on day 6). During hospitalization, pain scores based on CMPS-F, the prevalence of rescue analgesia (CMPS-F ≥ 5/20), dry and soft food intake (%) during periods of 3 minutes and 2 hours, daily soft food intake and serum inflammatory cytokines were analyzed and compared. In article 2, cats were filmed remotely for 10 min throughout the study at different time points (total of 36h of video recording). The videos consisted of four parts namely general, playing, feeding and post-feeding behaviors. The duration and frequency of different behaviors based on an ethogram were analyzed. In article 3, ninety-one image captures (i.e. screenshots) from videos filmed at days 1 (postoperative 6 hours) and 6 for article 2 and videos filmed before/after rescue analgesia were included. The FGS comprises five action units (AU): eyes, ears, muzzle, whiskers and head position. The FGS scores of the images were independently scored by four blinded raters. Inter-rater reliability of each AU and total FGS scores and the effect of the caregiver’s presence were evaluated. In study 2 (article 4), twenty-three cats undergoing tooth extractions were included. Cats randomly received either Simbadol (1.8 mg/mL; 0.24 mg/kg SC, every 24h, n = 11) or Vetergesic (0.3 mg/mL; 0.02 mg/kg IM, every 8h, n = 12) throughout the study. They were admitted on day 0, underwent oral examination, radiographs and treatment under general anesthesia on day 1 and discharged on day 4. Sedation and pain were scored using the dynamic interactive visual analog scale (day 1) and CMPS-F¬, respectively. Sedation and pain scores and the prevalence of rescue analgesia (CMPS-F ≥ 5/20) and resentment (defined as any type of escape behavior associated with aversion to drug administration) were analyzed. The studies found that the pain scores and the prevalence of rescue analgesia were significantly increased, and dry and soft food intakes were significantly decreased in cats with severe disease when compared with those with minimal disease, and the oral disease influences inflammatory cytokines and induces the specific behaviors. FGS is a reliable tool for the assessment of oral pain and is not affected by the caregiver’s presence. Pain scores and the prevalence of rescue analgesia in cats administered Simbadol were not significantly different from those administered Vetergesic, and some cats administered Vetergesic developed resentment to the administration of the drug, which was not significantly different from those administered Simbadol. Long-term analgesia is required after dental extractions in cats with severe oral disease. A decrease in food intake and specific behaviors identified in the studies could be used to differentiate painful versus pain-free cats in clinical practice. The FGS is a reliable tool for pain assessment in cats undergoing dental extractions. Simbadol produced similar analgesic effects to Vetergesic without resentment during drug administration.