Under de senaste Ã¥ren har flygets klimatpÃ¥verkan blivit alltmer uppmärksammad för att den, precis som annan klimatpÃ¥verkan, behöver minska. Samtidigt väntas flygresandet öka de kommande Ã¥ren och flyget är en viktig faktor för ekonomisk tillväxt i världen. Därför syftar denna studie till att undersöka hur de ekonomiska förutsättningarna för el- och hybridflygplan i regional kommersiell flygtrafik i Sverige är genom investeringskalkylering. Som en fallstudie väljs tre regionala flyglinjer frÃ¥n Malmö Airport för att kunna applicera kalkylmetoderna pÃ¥ och vid applicering av dessa kartläggs utbetalningskällor för flygplan och lämpliga nivÃ¥er av inbetalningar i form av passagerarbiljetter bestäms. Resultatet för studien utarbetas genom tre scenarier och visar ett positivt nuvärde för investeringar av el- och hybridflygplan när investeringen inte belastar flygoperatören. Om flygoperatören däremot genomför investeringen av flygplanen utan nÃ¥got ekonomiskt stöd uppnÃ¥s lönsamhet endast i väldigt begränsad omfattning vid vissa förutsättningar. En slutsats frÃ¥n studien är att det kommer att krävas stora investeringar för att kunna använda el- och hybridflygplan i kommersiell flygtrafik, antingen av flygoperatören eller en annan aktör som möjliggör att investeringen inte belastar flygoperatören. El- och hybridflygplanens fÃ¥tal stolar ombord och de investeringar som behöver göras innebär att de genomsnittliga biljettpriserna pÃ¥ samtliga tre regionala flyglinjer som undersökts ökar. Dock kan subventioner för resenärer som reser med el- och hybridflygplan och samt eller investeringsstöd till flygoperatörer förbättra möjligheten att använda el- och hybridflygplan i kommersiell flygtrafik. / <p>Examensarbetet är utfört vid Institutionen för teknik och naturvetenskap (ITN) vid Tekniska fakulteten, Linköpings universitet</p>

As organizações enfrentam pressão por geração de valor e, para tanto, buscam posicionar-se favoravelmente em seus setores de atuação, o que impõe a necessidade de definir uma estratégia clara e realizar investimentos alinhados a ela. Os investimentos são concretizados por meio de projetos, cuja seleção deve ser conduzida por um processo rigoroso, transparente e objetivo o que pode ser obtido com a definição de critérios de seleção baseados em indicadores quantitativos financeiros. Apesar da existência de muitos trabalhos com foco no alinhamento da carteira de projetos à estratégia do negócio, as discussões são conduzidas de modo qualitativo ou baseadas em exemplos específicos e aplicação de poucos critérios. O presente trabalho avalia, por meio de simulações, as implicações estratégicas dos diferentes tipos de critérios de seleção, incluindo visão de risco e retorno. Em resumo, o critério de maximizar o Valor Presente Líquido seleciona projetos de mais longa duração e fluxos de caixas positivos no longo prazo, o que favorece o crescimento da organização. Uma carteira desta natureza pode adequar-se a empresas que competem em indústrias em ritmo acelerado de crescimento. Os critérios, baseados na Taxa Interna de Retorno e no Índice de Lucratividade, selecionam projetos de elevado retorno sobre o capital investido, o que tende a privilegiar rentabilidade em vez de crescimento. Carteiras com estas características podem favorecer a atuação em indústrias de expressivo volume de mercado, porém baixas taxas de crescimento. Em contrapartida, os critérios baseados no Período de Retorno selecionam projetos de menor duração, cujos retornos ocorrem no curto prazo, característica que pode ser desejada quando a organização atua em uma indústria em declínio ou em linhas de negócio em que pretende desinvestir. / Organizations face pressure for value creation and seek a favorable position in their industry segments, what demands a clear strategy and investments aligned to it. Such investments are implemented through projects, which should be selected by a rigorous, transparent and objective process what can be achieved using quantitative financial criteria for project selection. Although there are several studies focused on the alignment of Project Portfolio to Corporate Strategy, discussions are qualitative in most cases or they are based on few specific selection criteria. In order to present a broader study on the field, this work simulates the strategic implication of different selection criteria, using a risk-reward framework. Major conclusion could be achieved on that way. For example, maximizing the Net Present Value selects long lasting projects with strong cash flow generation in the long term. Such portfolios have good fit for companies competing in high growth industries. Selection criteria based on the Internal Rate of Return or the Profitability Index select high return on investment projects, which drive more profitability than growth. Such portfolios are applicable for companies competing in high volume but low growth industries. On the other hand, criteria based on the Payback Period select short term return projects, which are applicable for companies competing in shrinking industries or in divesting business lines.

This study is located in the rather young area of international entrepreneurship research. Despite the vast literature in Western countries exploring the nexuses on entrepreneurship-national culture and entrepreneurship-decision making, we know very little about how bounded rationality and national culture affect the entrepreneur’s capital budgeting decision making in emerging economies. Past research on small business and capital budgeting shows a predominance of quantitative approaches to identify which capital budgeting techniques were used and why they are used. Through qualitative interviews with 20 Mexican and 20 Canadian participants, this study looks at how Mexican and Canadian entrepreneurs approach capital budgeting decisions in small businesses in the food sector industry. This study confirms that capital budgeting decisions are taken under conditions of bounded rationality, but also suggests that context affects how bounded rationality is used. For instance, Mexican entrepreneurs rely more on “gut feeling”, while Canadian entrepreneurs tend to combine intuition with business plans. The differences observed for both national samples are further discussed through a Hofstedian and a GLOBE lens. I argue that national culture affects how capital budgeting decisions are made throughout the decision making process (planning, identifying, evaluating, selecting and authorizing) and also that national culture plays a role for who influences the entrepreneurs’ decisions. By contextualizing capital budgeting decisions and using a constructivist logic of discovery, this study provides insights into entrepreneurs’ capital budgeting decision making in small businesses and suggests that national cultural differences play a valuable part in understanding this important aspect of entrepreneurial activity. This thesis also adds to our understanding of entrepreneurs in emerging economies.

As organizações enfrentam pressão por geração de valor e, para tanto, buscam posicionar-se favoravelmente em seus setores de atuação, o que impõe a necessidade de definir uma estratégia clara e realizar investimentos alinhados a ela. Os investimentos são concretizados por meio de projetos, cuja seleção deve ser conduzida por um processo rigoroso, transparente e objetivo o que pode ser obtido com a definição de critérios de seleção baseados em indicadores quantitativos financeiros. Apesar da existência de muitos trabalhos com foco no alinhamento da carteira de projetos à estratégia do negócio, as discussões são conduzidas de modo qualitativo ou baseadas em exemplos específicos e aplicação de poucos critérios. O presente trabalho avalia, por meio de simulações, as implicações estratégicas dos diferentes tipos de critérios de seleção, incluindo visão de risco e retorno. Em resumo, o critério de maximizar o Valor Presente Líquido seleciona projetos de mais longa duração e fluxos de caixas positivos no longo prazo, o que favorece o crescimento da organização. Uma carteira desta natureza pode adequar-se a empresas que competem em indústrias em ritmo acelerado de crescimento. Os critérios, baseados na Taxa Interna de Retorno e no Índice de Lucratividade, selecionam projetos de elevado retorno sobre o capital investido, o que tende a privilegiar rentabilidade em vez de crescimento. Carteiras com estas características podem favorecer a atuação em indústrias de expressivo volume de mercado, porém baixas taxas de crescimento. Em contrapartida, os critérios baseados no Período de Retorno selecionam projetos de menor duração, cujos retornos ocorrem no curto prazo, característica que pode ser desejada quando a organização atua em uma indústria em declínio ou em linhas de negócio em que pretende desinvestir. / Organizations face pressure for value creation and seek a favorable position in their industry segments, what demands a clear strategy and investments aligned to it. Such investments are implemented through projects, which should be selected by a rigorous, transparent and objective process what can be achieved using quantitative financial criteria for project selection. Although there are several studies focused on the alignment of Project Portfolio to Corporate Strategy, discussions are qualitative in most cases or they are based on few specific selection criteria. In order to present a broader study on the field, this work simulates the strategic implication of different selection criteria, using a risk-reward framework. Major conclusion could be achieved on that way. For example, maximizing the Net Present Value selects long lasting projects with strong cash flow generation in the long term. Such portfolios have good fit for companies competing in high growth industries. Selection criteria based on the Internal Rate of Return or the Profitability Index select high return on investment projects, which drive more profitability than growth. Such portfolios are applicable for companies competing in high volume but low growth industries. On the other hand, criteria based on the Payback Period select short term return projects, which are applicable for companies competing in shrinking industries or in divesting business lines.

I dagens digitaliserade och konkurrensutsatta marknad behöver företag vara alltmer flexibla för att kunna anpassa sig till kundernas efterfrågan. Styrmedel är de verktyg som företag använder sig av för att styra verksamheten och bli framgångsrika. Framgång kan mätas i flera olika slag, bland annat genom finansiell framgång. De styrmedel som är av denna finansiella karaktär kallas för formella styrmedel vilket denna uppsats har för avsikt att undersöka. Forskning som har gjorts tidigare inom ämnet formella styrmedel, har gjorts i olika branscher men få studier har behandlats inom fastighetsbranschen, vilket gör denna bransch intressant att studera. Formella styrmedel i fastighetsbranschen utgör ett kunskapsgap som vi ämnar att skapa bättre förståelse för med hjälp av denna uppsats. Tidigare forskning inom andra branscher tyder på att det finns skillnader i hur användningen av formella styrmedel sker i teorin och hur de används i praktiken, vilket skapar ytterligare ett kunskapsgap som denna uppsats ämnar att undersöka. För att uppnå studiens syfte har en kvalitativ metod genomförts och data har samlats in genom semistrukturerade intervjuer. Åtta personer som arbetar på fastighetsföretag och som har insikt i företagets ekonomistyrning har intervjuats. Data från intervjuerna har transkriberats och därefter har det transkriberade materialet kodats. Genom koder och kategorier har materialet delats in i övergripande teman. Med hjälp av kodningen har ett resultat framställts utifrån studiens forskningsfrågor. Resultatet visar att det finns en viss skillnad i vilka styrmedel som företagen använder och vilket tillvägagångssätt som används. Resultatet indikerar även att det finns ett gap mellan teori och praktik men gapet varierar mellan styrmedlen. Utifrån resultatet kan en slutsats dras även gällande skillnader mellan stora och mindre företag, vilket är att styrmedlen till viss del används på olika sätt beroende på företagets storlek. / In today's digitalized and competitive market, companies need to be increasingly flexible in order to be able to adapt to customer demand. Instruments are the tools that companies use to manage their business and become successful. Success can be measured in several different ways, including through financial success. The instruments that are of this financial nature are called formal instruments, which this thesis intends to investigate. Research on formal instruments has previously been done in various industries, but not when it comes to the real estate industry, which makes this industry interesting to study in more detail. Formal instruments in the real estate industry constitute a knowledge gap that we intend to help create a better understanding of with the help of this thesis. Previous research within other industries has shown that there are differences in how the use of formal instruments takes place in theory and how they are used in practice, which creates an additional knowledge gap that this thesis intends to investigate. In order to reach the study’s purpose, the survey was conducted through a qualitative method and data was collected through semi-structured interviews. Eight people who works at real estate companies and with insight into the company's financial management has been interviewed. The data from the interviews has been transcribed and from the transcribed material a coding was made. Through codes and categories has the data been distinguished into overriding themes. Through the process of coding a result was given based on the research questions. The result shows that there is a certain difference in which instruments the companies use and in which way. The result also indicatesthat there is a gap between theory and practice, but the gap varies between the instruments. From the result another conclusion can be made regardingdifferences between large and small companies, which is that the instruments are used in different manners depending on the size of the company.

Thesis (MComm (Business Management))--University of Stellenbosch, 2006. / For the last 40 years, academics advocated the use of the traditional Discounted Cash Flow (DCF) techniques but these suggestions were ignored by practitioners for a long time. The Net Present Value (NPV), Internal Rate of Return (IRR) and Present Value Payback Period (PVPP) are now some of the more widely used traditional DCF-based techniques, especially among large firms. However, academics are now criticising these techniques as they are based on rigid assumptions that ignore the management of flexibility in projects. The Real Option Valuation (ROV) is suggested as an alternative technique because it implicitly incorporates this flexibility in project valuation. With ROV, opportunities in projects are treated as real options and are therefore valued using financial option principles. Real options give the firm the opportunity to act on an investment project (invest, abandon, rescale) at a later date, when more information is available. As with the traditional DCF-based techniques in the past, few firms seem to have adopted ROV despite academics’ recommendations. This study is thus aimed at determining through a survey, whether the largest firms in South Africa, specifically those included in the JSE/FTSE Top 40 index, are using ROV. Based on the results of the survey, it is concluded that firms generally do not use ROV as only nine percent of the respondents were found to be using it. This is largely attributed to managers being unaware of the technique, and to some extent, to the technique’s complexity. On the other hand, managers were generally found to recognise the flexibility despite not using ROV, although it was not confirmed whether they quantify this flexibility.

The retail industry is considered to be a very competitive industry in the United States since there are so many players in the almost saturated retail markets that provide similar products and services at similar price levels to customers. Market selection has been identified as an important strategy to differentiate a retailer in this competitive market. Therefore in this thesis, we describe a conceptual framework to evaluate retailers investment opportunities in dynamic, competitive retail markets. The objective is to describe a conceptual investment analysis framework to address the strategic aspects of a retailer s investment opportunity as well as the dynamic uncertainty of a retail market in a single framework. This conceptual framework outlines a strategic view towards retail stores as flexible assets of a retail enterprise. This conceptual framework is general and can be adjusted and applied to investments options in other services. In addition, we develop an integrated investment analysis approach based on dynamic programming to explore retailers investment behaviors in dynamic markets. The objective is to determine retailers optimal investment thresholds in noncompetitive and competitive markets. We consider two retailers to illustrate our approach and use a simple game theory treatment to address competition in retail markets. We use our integrated investment analysis model based on a real options methodology to evaluate the apparent tendency for the small discount retailer invests earlier in a new developing market due to the competition effect from the large discount retailer. This early entry gives the small retail a first-mover advantage and delays the big retailer s entry into the competitive market. In addition, we conduct sensitivity analysis to characterize how significantly the values of our model parameters impact the retailers investment decisions. We also develop an integrated investment analysis approach based on contingent claims analysis to explore retailers investment behaviors in dynamic markets. The objective is to determine retailers optimal investment thresholds in noncompetitive and competitive markets. The equivalent risk neutral evaluation approach is presented in this thesis as an extended version of the contingent claims analysis approach, which facilitates the market-oriented valuation of the retailer s investment option in dynamic markets. Sensitivity analysis is conducted to study how retailers optimal investment thresholds change as the values of parameters in this equivalent risk neutral evaluation approach change. The relationship between the dynamic programming and the equivalent risk neutral evaluation approach is also summarized in this thesis to identify the similarities and the differences between these two investment analysis approaches. One of the most important objectives of this comparison is to determine in what market conditions the choice of investment analysis approach is critical and dramatically changes the retailer s optimal investment threshold. Finally, we empirically examine an important aspect of our theoretical work that the big retailer invests and opens a store relatively later in markets with a small retailer compared to markets without a small retailer. In addition, the big retailer opens a store at relatively higher retail market potential in markets with a small retailer compared to markets without a small retailer. In this thesis, we discuss some empirical evidence to support these theoretical results. We chose Wal-Mart and Dollar General as the big and small retailers, respectively, in our empirical study. Our empirical results do not validate the theory and just provide supporting evidence for our theoretical works.

Submitted by Marcelo Moreira Russo (marcelo_m_russo@yahoo.com) on 2013-01-11T00:33:15Z No. of bitstreams: 1 20130110-Dissertacao-Real Option_Marcelo Russo.pdf: 1191678 bytes, checksum: a84358a46e9372d37389260fc8dbf38f (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Eliene Soares da Silva (eliene.silva@fgv.br) on 2013-01-11T12:56:21Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 20130110-Dissertacao-Real Option_Marcelo Russo.pdf: 1191678 bytes, checksum: a84358a46e9372d37389260fc8dbf38f (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2013-01-11T13:07:53Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 20130110-Dissertacao-Real Option_Marcelo Russo.pdf: 1191678 bytes, checksum: a84358a46e9372d37389260fc8dbf38f (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-12-13 / Brazil and other emerging markets will continue to present many investment opportunities in the coming years. Finance professionals who manage the company’s capital budgeting processes will face challenges. Specific characteristics of these projects as commodity-linked prices (e.g., the case of oil and gas and agricultural projects) and the customary uncertainties related to emerging markets are additional challenges. In this scenario, a more sophisticated capital budgeting framework, Real Options, offers a more robust theory to deal with uncertainty, managerial flexibility, and volatile outcomes imbedded in these opportunities. Real Options theory assumes that the managers’ involvement in the project generates value so they might capitalize on good outcomes or reduce losses by abandoning projects with bad results. The primary objective of this research was to apply Real Options valuation analysis for an investment project valuation and discuss the process and the results of such methodology. The case study retroactively analyzed an investment project in Colombia and compared the results under traditional NPV methodology and Real Options. The valuation techniques were performed as if they had been applied at the time the project was approved and then compared with the project's actual performance. The case study evaluated two types of real options: first, the effect of an option to cancel a contract that is assessed from the perspective of the client; and second, the option to abandon and defer from the perspective of the company that will perform the investment. / Brasil e outros mercados emergentes continuarão a apresentar muitas oportunidades de investimento nos próximos anos. Profissionais financeiros que gerenciam os processos de orçamento de capital nas empresas terão grandes desafios a enfrentar. Características específicas destes projetos como preços ligados a commodities (por exemplo: petróleo e gás e projetos agrícolas) e as incertezas habituais relacionadas com os mercados emergentes são desafios adicionais. Neste cenário, ferramentas mais sofisticadas de orçamento de capital como Opções Reais, oferece uma teoria mais robusta para lidar com incerteza, flexibilidade gerencial, e os resultados voláteis embutidas nestas oportunidades. A teoria de Opções Reais assume que o envolvimento dos gestores nos projetos gera valor à medida que potencializam os bons resultados ou reduzem as perdas por abandonar projetos com maus resultados. O objetivo principal desta pesquisa foi aplicar a análise de Opções Reais para um projeto de investimento e discutir o processo e os resultados da metodologia. O estudo de caso analisa retroativamente um projeto de investimento na Colômbia e compara os resultados sob o tradicional VPL e Opções Reais. As técnicas de avaliação foram realizadas como se estivessem sendo aplicadas no momento em que o projeto foi aprovado, e depois comparadas com o desempenho real do projeto. O estudo de caso avaliado possui dois tipos de Opções Reais: primeiro, o efeito de uma opção para cancelar um contrato que é analisado a partir da perspectiva do cliente que pode exercer essa opção, e o segundo, a opção de abandonar e adiar a partir da perspectiva da empresa que irá executar a investimento.