Abstract A variety of radiopharmaceuticals and imaging techniques are currently available for scintigraphic imaging of infections. However, comparisons on the clinical value of such techniques have been limited, especially in prosthesis infections. This series included 138 cases with suspected prosthesis infections – 94 in hip and 44 in knee prostheses of patients whose final diagnoses were based on clinical, operative and microbiological findings, and who underwent three-phase bone, 99mTc -leukocyte and 99mTc-ciprofloxacin imaging in the Department of Clinical Chemistry, Oulu University Hospital and in the Laboratory, L?nsi-Pohja Central Hospital, during the years from 1993 to 2001. The normal arterial and soft-tissue phase images of three-phase bone imaging practically excluded infection in hip prostheses, whereas these techniques frequently yielded false positive findings in patients with knee prostheses, resulting in specificity of 23% or less. In combined 99mTc-leukocyte/bone imaging, diagnostic accuracy was 80–86% at two- to four-hour images and 87–98% at 24-hour images. The 99mTc-ciprofloxacin images showed unspecific accumulation of tracer in the one-hour and four-hour images, which disappeared in the 24-hour images in most hip and knee prostheses. 99mTc-ciprofloxacin imaging yielded almost as good diagnostic accuracy as combined 99mTc-leukocyte/bone imaging. In conclusion, in suspected hip prosthesis infections, normal findings in three-phase bone imaging exclude infection, whereas abnormal results in the arterial and soft-tissue phases should be confirmed with 99mTc-leukocyte imaging using 24-hour images. Contrary-wise, in suspected knee prosthesis infections, 99mTc-leukocyte imaging with 24-hour images is the first-line examination, and abnormal results in 24-hour images should be confirmed by using 99mTc-bone-metabolic imaging. 99mTc-ciprofloxacin yielded almost equally good results as 99mTc-leukocyte/bone-metabolic imaging, but unfortunately, the tracer is not commercially available, although it has been patented.

Maintenance of a topological homeostasis by introduction and removal of the supercoils to relieve excessive strain on the DNA is a hallmark of topoisomerase function in the cell. The requirement of the topoisomerases during DNA transaction processes marks a ubiquitous presence of the enzymes in all the life forms. Different reactions carried out by the enzymes include relaxation of positive and negative supercoils required majorly during DNA replication and transcription, decatenation at the end of DNA replication to separate the daughter chromosomes and removal of lethal knots generated in the circular chromosome. In eubacteria, the enzymes introduce negative supercoils to facilitate easier strand separation for DNA transaction processes. However, in thermophiles, a different enzyme maintains the genome in a positively supercoiled form to protect from denaturation by excessive heat. These varied functions are carried out by different topoisomerases. Therefore, each organism maintains a minimum required set of the enzymes and the absence of a certain enzyme may be compensated for by topoisomerases with dual functions. For example, Mycobacterium tuberculosis and many other slow growing mycobacteria do not possess topoisomerase IV or its homologs. In these organisms, the DNA gyrase is suggested to carry out both negative supercoiling and decatenation reactions. Therefore, the mycobacterial DNA gyrase must be able to manage between both the functions in vivo. In contrast, Mycobacterium smegmatis and few other mycobacteria contain an additional type II topoisomerase which does not resemble any known type II enzyme but could catalyze relaxation and decatenation reactions. Importantly, the enzyme displays a unique ability to introduce limited positive supercoils and may have certain functions inside the cell which remains to be studied. Owing to the indispensability for bacterial survival topoisomerases present themselves as important drug targets. A large number of inhibitors have been found to inhibit the enzyme and thereby killing the bacterial. Among these, quinolones are successfully being used as broad spectrum antibacterial drugs. Although the commonly used quinolones inhibit many bacterial pathogens, a reduced susceptibility is exhibited by some of the pathogens e.g. Mycobacterium tuberculosis. To circumvent the lower efficacy of existing drugs, new and modified quinolones have been developed which are highly effective against mycobacteria. The difference in the susceptibility may be conferred by a difference in the chemical property of the drug and the interacting residues present in the enzyme. In the present thesis efforts have been made to understand the mechanism of the type II topoisomerases from mycobacteria and drug action on these enzymes. The thesis is divided into four chapters. In Chapter I of the thesis an introduction is provided on the topoisomerases, their classification and different reactions catalyzed by these enzymes. As the work in present thesis has been carried out with type II topoisomerases, introduction of type II enzymes, their structure and mechanisms is elaborated. DNA gyrase, its mechanism of reaction and in vitro and in vivo functions are explained in great detail. DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV are targeted by a range of different inhibitors. These different classes of inhibitors and their mechanism of action are described. Finally, the mechanism of mycobacterial DNA gyrase with structural information and the current understanding of quinolone action on the enzyme are explained. The chapter ends with the objective of the study in the present thesis. In chapter II, the studies are aimed at understanding the molecular basis for decatenation carried out by mycobacterial DNA gyrase. Previous work from the laboratory showed that the enzyme can carry out decatenation more efficiently than its homolog from E. coli. It was shown that the mycobacterial enzyme binds two DNA molecules in trans in a length dependent manner. The ability to bind the second DNA is conferred upon the holoenzyme by ATPase subunit (GyrB) subunit which alone can bind DNA. Similar studies using topo IV from E. coli, the strongest known decatenase showed binding of two DNA molecules and the second DNA binding by ATPase (ParE) subunit. However, GyrB subunit from E. coli DNA gyrase, a weaker decatenase, does not bind second DNA molecule efficiently. The results provide a general mechanism for decatenation by type II enzymes in which efficient binding of second DNA is important. In Chapter III, studies have been carried out using topo NM, an atypical type II topoisomerase from Mycobacterium smegmatis. The enzyme has been characterized previously in the laboratory. In addition to efficient decatenation and relaxation, the enzyme exhibits a unique ability to introduce positive supercoils into the DNA. As demonstrated for the mycobacterial DNA gyrase and topo IV in the Chapter II, the ATPase subunit (Topo N) of topo NM, binds second DNA efficiently. The binding of both gate and transport segments increases with the length of the DNA. Binding of two DNA molecules by the holoenzyme appears to be a cumulative effect of DNA binding to individual subunits. In the absence of any inhibitor, the enzyme accumulates cleaved DNA products with shorter DNA but not with larger DNA. The cleavage of the shorter DNA is supported only in the presence of Mg2+ and Mn2+. Another important property of the enzyme is to introduce positive supercoils which appears to be due to its efficient utilization of ATP and a high rate of reaction. Chapter IV deals with the interaction of mycobacterial gyrase with fluoroquinolones (FQs). Although DNA gyrase is the sole target of the FQs in M. tuberculosis, the lower susceptibility to commonly used FQs have led to the studies to find out more effective quinolones. Previous studies from the laboratory showed a lower susceptibility of the mycobacterial gyrase to ciprofloxacin, but moxifloxacin could inhibit the enzyme efficiently. The better inhibition by moxifloxacin appears to be due to efficient trapping of the enzyme-DNA covalent complex. Both ciprofloxacin and moxifloxacin bind the DNA gyrase from mycobacteria, E. coli and E. coli topo IV, independent of DNA. The extent of binding also correlates with the inhibition potential of the drug against a given enzyme. A general model of quinolone enzyme interaction is provided wherein the quinolones are shown to interact with GyrA subunit or holoenzyme or the enzyme- DNA complex which would finally result in the trapping of the covalent complex.

En Europe, le nombre de cancers est en constante augmentation et explique l’augmentation des traitements. Les bases de ces traitements sont la chimiothérapie et la radiothérapie, seules ou en association. Les chimiothérapies sont effectuées à l’aide de médicaments anticancéreux qui ont des propriétés toxiques pour les cellules. Après administration des traitements aux patients, les médicaments sont excrétés et se concentrent dans les effluents hospitaliers et les réseaux d’égouts. Bien que beaucoup de ces composés soient éliminés dans les stations d’épuration, certains sont difficilement biodégradables et sont directement rejetées dans le milieu naturel où ils représentent un risque toxique pour la flore, la faune et l’Homme. Bien que les concentrations soient faibles (ng/L - μg/L), très peu de données sont disponibles sur leurs impacts écotoxicologiques. Leur présence dans l’environnement est d’autant plus préoccupante que les produits de métabolisation sont souvent plus toxiques que la substance d’origine. L’objectif de la thèse a été d’évaluer le risque (éco)toxicologique induit par de faibles doses de médicaments rejetés seuls ou en mélanges dans les effluents hospitaliers, urbains et dans l’environnement. De par leur utilisation courante dans les traitements anticancéreux, trois molécules ont été sélectionnées pour notre étude : la ciprofloxacine (antibiotique), le tamoxifène (perturbateur endocrinien), et le cyclophosphamide (anticancéreux). Des gammes de concentrations représentatives des effluents hospitaliers, station d’épuration et de l’environnement ont été testées à l’aide de bioessais appliqués à des organismes aquatiques (V. fischeri, P. subcapitata, L. minor) et de biomarqueurs appliqués à une levure (S. cerevisiae) et des cellules humaines hépatiques et mammaires. La viabilité cellulaire (test MTS) et la génotoxicité (cassures à l’ADN et adduit à l’ADN) ont été comparés aux tests standardisés Microtox ®, Algaltoxkit F™, ainsi que d’inhibition de croissance de Lemna minor. Le potentiel perturbateur endocrinien a été évalué en parallèle à l’aide du test YES/YAS. Cette batterie de tests a ensuite été appliquée a des effluents bruts (hospitaliers, station d’épuration) pour en évaluer le potentiel (géno)toxique. Des échantillons à proximité de l’hôpital de Gérone (Espagne) ont été prélevés en sortie de l’hôpital, en entrée et en sortie de station d’épuration, pendant trois mois consécutifs. Plusieurs effets de toxicité ont été observés sur les modèles d’étude, comme notamment l’apparition de phénomènes d’hormèses sur la viabilité des cellules hépatiques exposée au tamoxifène et à la ciprofloxacine, seuls ou en mélange. Le même schéma est observé pour les mélanges avec le test Microtox®. D’autre part, l’exposition respective des cellules hépatiques et mammaires aux médicaments n’entraîne pas de cassures de l’ADN et entraine l’apparition d’adduits seulement avec le tamoxifène, alors qu’on note une augmentation dose-dépendant des cassures et des adduits à l’ADN après exposition aux mélanges. De même, une réponse positive est observée avec le test Algaltox F™. Concernant les effluents, les effets dépendent à la fois du type d’organisme et du temps d’exposition. Les tests Microtox®, Algaltox F™ et le post-marquage des adduits à l’ADN sont apparus être les pertinents pour l’analyse. Les interactions observées entre les composés mettent en avant la nécessité d’évaluer les effets des contaminants à petites doses en mélanges, à plusieurs temps d’exposition et avec différents tests. L’application d’une telle batterie de tests à des échantillons environnementaux permet de qualifier les effluents et de suivre l’efficacité de moyens d’épuration. A terme, son application pourrait permettre de mieux appréhender les risques (éco)toxiques associés aux rejets de médicaments dans l’environnement et pouvant être à l’origine de cancer secondaire chez l’Homme. / In Europe, cancers rate is constantly raising, which explain the increase in treatments. They are usually chemotherapy and radiotherapy, alone or combine. Chemotherapy is done with anticancer drugs with toxic characteristics on cells. After administer the treatments to the patients, some of the drugs are excreted in significant proportion and released in hospital and communal effluents. Even though a lot of the compounds are either removed by adsorption or bio-degradation in waste water treatment plant (WWTP), some of their are not are directly released in the environment and represent a toxic risk for aquatic organisms and the Human health. Despite low concentrations (ng/L-μg/L), few data are available about the ecotoxicological impact. The importance of chemical compounds pollutants, especially anticancer drugs, are a real concern because the metabolites of the chemicals are even more toxic than the original substance. The aim of the thesis is to develop a battery based approach to evaluate the risks induct by low doses of drugs released independently or in mixture, in hospital waste water. Because of their common use in anticancer treatment procedures, three molecules have been chosen for our study: ciprofloxacin (antibiotic), tamoxifen (endocrine disruptor), cyclophosphamide (anticancer). Concentrations were range from hospital sewers and WWTP to the environment have been tested with a battery base approach using standardized bioassays applied on aquatic organisms (V fischeri, S. subcapitata, L. minor) and biomarker applied on yeast (S. cerevisia), hepatic and mammary human cell lines. Cell viability (test MTS) and genotoxicity (DNA breaks, DNA adducts) were compared with the standardized bioassays Microtox®, Algaltoxkit F™, and Lemna minor growth inhibition. In parallel, the endocrine disruptor activity was estimated the YES/YAS assay. The battery assay was then applied to evaluate the (geno)toxicity of raw effluents (hospital, wastewater-treatment plant). Samples from the hospital of Girona (Spain) were taken got out of it from the hospital, in entrance and got out of it from water-treatment plant, during three consecutive months. Several toxic effects have been observed during this work on aquatic organisms and both human cell lines. Results show especially hormetic effect on viability of hepatic cell line exposed to ciprofloxacin and tamoxifen alone or in mixture. Same results were observed the Microtox assays after mixtures exposures. On the other hand, the individually hepatic and mammary cell exposure to the drugs doesn’t induce DNA break, and induce DNA adduct only with the tamoxifen. Furthermore, we observe a dose-dependent increasing of the DNA break and adduct if the cells are exposed in mixture. Same results were observed with Algaltox F™. Concerning the effluents, effects depending on the kind of organisms and time exposure. The Microtox ®, Algaltox F ™ and the DNA adducts post-labelling appeared to be the most relevant for the analysis. The interactions observed between drugs pinpoint the necessity to assess the effect of contaminants in low doses mixtures, at many exposure times, and using different tools. The application of this battery with environmental raw samples is in use to rank outflows toxicity and follow the WWTP efficiency, which could lead to a better understanding of the human health risks.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Introduction: Regenerative endodontic therapy in immature teeth with necrotic pulps triggers continued root development thereby improving the prognosis of these teeth. Several agents are under consideration for the disinfection and conditioning phases of this therapy. Triple antibiotic paste (TAP, i.e. equal parts of ciprofloxacin, metronidazole, minocycline) is used for canal disinfection and 17% EDTA solution is used for dentin conditioning. However, TAP and EDTA cause demineralization and their effect on surface loss and surface roughness of radicular dentin during regenerative procedures has not been quantified. Surface loss may be correlated with reduced tooth strength and surface roughness may be correlated with stem cell attachment. Objectives: The aim of this in vitro study was to quantitatively investigate the surface loss and surface roughness on human radicular dentin after treatment with two concentrations of TAP followed by EDTA. Materials and Methods: Human radicular dentin specimens were prepared from extracted human anterior teeth and randomized into six experimental groups. Group 1: saline control; Group 2: 17% EDTA; Group 3: TAP 1 mg/mL; Group 4: TAP 1 mg/mL and 17% EDTA; Group 5: TAP 1,000 mg/mL; Group 6: TAP 1,000 mg/mL and 17% EDTA for 5 minutes. After TAP is applied to Groups 3-6, all groups were incubated for 4 weeks. Then, groups 2, 4, and 6 were treated with EDTA for 5 minutes. Dentin surface loss (μm) and surface roughness (Ra, μm) were quantified after various treatments using non-contact and contact profilometry, respectively. Data were analyzed by one-way analysis of variance (α = 0.05) Hypothesis: It was hypothesized that there would be a significant difference in surface loss or surface roughness between at least two treatment groups. Results: All treatment groups showed significantly higher surface loss compared to untreated control. Dentin treated with 1g/mL TAP caused significant increase in surface loss and surface roughness compared to dentin treated with 1 mg/mL TAP. However, only 1g/mL TAP treated dentin showed significantly higher surface roughness compared to untreated control. The use of EDTA after both concentrations of TAP did not have significant additive effect on surface loss and surface roughness of dentin. Conclusion: The use of 1 mg/mL TAP can minimize surface loss and surface roughness of radicular dentin compared to higher concentrations. The use of EDTA after TAP may not cause additional surface loss and surface roughness of dentin.

The combination of fluoroquinolones and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in patients increases the incidence of convulsions. The molecular mechanism underlying this interaction is not fully understood. The primary aim of this study was to investigate the pharmacological mechanisms that might underlie convulsions associated with the use of fluoroquinolones and NSAIDs. In this study, the interaction of ciprofloxacin (cipro; a prototype fluoroquinolone) and biphenylacetic acid (BPAA; a NSAID) was investigated using patch-clamp recording techniques. The specific aims of this study were to investigate the actions of cipro and BPAA on: (1) neuronal GABA A receptors, (2) spontaneous synaptic activity in cultured neurons; (3) voltage-gated ion channels; (4) GABA-gated single channels, 5) the association and dissociation rate kinetics of cipro and BPAA at GABA A -receptors, and 6) their effects at different human GABA A receptor isoforms. BPAA acted as an allosteric modulator to enhance the antagonist effect of cipro at GABA A receptors. Cipro + BPAA abolished inhibitory synaptic activity, whereas excitatory synaptic events were enhanced. These data suggest that this combination of drugs inhibits GABA A receptor-mediated inhibition and secondarily increases excitability in neuronal networks. Cipro and BPAA had little or no effects at voltage-gated Na + , K + or Ca 2+ ion channels, which suggests that the main effects of cipro + BPAA are at GABA A receptors. The kinetics study showed that BPAA increased the stability of the cipro-receptor complex to enhance the action of cipro. Cipro + BPAA inhibited the GABA A receptor by decreasing channel opening frequency and increasing the mean channel closed time. Subunit selectivity studies suggest that the β1/2 or γ2 subunits of GABA A receptors may not be a critical for the interaction of cipro + BPAA. Interestingly, the potentiation of cipro by BPAA was significantly less (p < 0.001) in GABA A receptors containing the α6 subunit compared to potentiation in the non-α6 contained receptor. The α subunit, therefore, appear to be a critical site for the synergistic antagonism of GABA A receptors by Cipro + BPAA. These data also suggest that there may be a novel binding site for BPAA at the a subunit of GABA A receptors.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Introduction: Regenerative endodontic therapy in immature teeth with necrotic pulps triggers continued root development, thereby improving the prognosis of these teeth. Disinfection of the canal is accomplished with an intracanal medicament, such as triple antibiotic paste (TAP) composed of metronidazole, ciprofloxacin, and minocycline. A modified triple antibiotic paste (MTAP) that replaces minocycline with clindamycin has recently been suggested to avoid the tooth discoloration and potential demineralization from minocycline. The effect these pastes have on radicular dentin is unknown. Objectives: The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of two intracanal medicaments used during endodontic regeneration, TAP and MTAP, at concentrations of 1 g/mL and 1 mg/mL, on the microhardness and chemical structure of radicular dentin. Materials and Methods: Roots from extracted, unrestored, non-carious human premolar teeth were sectioned. An antibiotic paste (MTAP or TAP) or sterile water (control) was applied to treatment groups and stored for four weeks in 80-percent humidity at 37 °C. The effect of each paste on the microhardness of radicular dentin was measured using a Vickers Microhardness Tester (n = 17) to take three pretreatment and post-treatment measurements at both 500 µm and 1000 µm from the pulp-dentin interface. The chemical structure was assessed from dentin specimens treated with the same medicaments or sterile water for four weeks. After treatment, three measurements were taken on each specimen using Attenuated Total Reflection Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy to measure the phosphate/amide I ratios of dentin (n = 7). Results: The 1 g/mL of TAP or MTAP and the 1 mg/mL methylcellulose-based TAP caused significant reduction in microhardness of roots compared with untreated control roots at 500 µm and 1000 µm from the pulp-dentin interface. Furthermore, the methylcellulose-based 1 mg/mL TAP and MTAP caused significantly less reduction in microhardness compared with 1 g/mL TAP and MTAP. The 1 g/mL of TAP and DAP caused significantly lower phosphate/amide I ratios compared with other groups. Conclusion: The use of methylcellulose based 1 mg/mL of TAP and MTAP may minimize the reduction in microhardness of roots compared with the currently used 1 g/mL concentration of these antibiotics.

Os tratamentos convencionais de efluentes em geral não são eficientes para a degradação de compostos persistentes como os fármacos. Neste trabalho, estuda-se o tratamento de soluções aquosas contendo o antibiótico ciprofloxacina (CIP) por meio de processo oxidativo avançado baseado em ozônio. Para tanto, foram realizados experimentos em semi-batelada com recirculação de líquido em um reator (coluna de bolhas) com escoamento gás-líquido em contracorrente. Amostras de líquido foram retiradas e analisadas para medida das concentrações de CIP e de carbono orgânico total (COT); a concentração de ozônio no gás foi medida por espectrofotometria UV-vis. Estudaram-se os efeitos das seguintes variáveis quanto à degradação de CIP, por meio de um planejamento Doehlert: concentração de ozônio à entrada do reator (8-25 mgO3 L-1), pH (3,5-10,5) e concentração inicial de CIP (5-26 mg L-1). Avaliaram-se as seguintes variáveis dependentes por meio da análise de superfícies de resposta: variação de concentração de CIP em 2 minutos; taxa inicial de degradação de CIP e variação de concentração de COT em 30 minutos. Os resultados indicaram total degradação de ciprofloxacina em menos de 15 minutos, tanto por via direta, com ataque por ozônio molecular em meio ácido, como por via indireta, com ataque por radicais hidroxila em meio básico. Os compostos resultantes da degradação da CIP mostraram-se recalcitrantes, obtendo-se maiores remoções de COT após 30 minutos apenas em meio básico ou neutro (máximo de 72,8% para pH=7, [O3]=24,9 mgO3 L-1 e [CIP]0=15,8 mg L-1). Apesar da persistência dos compostos orgânicos remanescentes, os ensaios respirométricos sugeriram que os produtos de degradação são menos tóxicos que o composto de partida, com menor inibição da atividade microbiana. No conjunto, os resultados do trabalho indicam que o processo de ozonização pode ser aplicado para pré-tratamento de efluentes aquosos contendo ciprofloxacina em baixas concentrações, podendo ser associado a processos de tratamento biológico em ETEs antes do descarte. / Conventional wastewater treatment processes are not generally efficient for the degradation of persistent substances like pharmaceutical compounds. In this work, the treatment of aqueous solutions containing the antibiotic ciprofloxacin (CIP) by means of the ozone-based advanced oxidation process is studied. With this aim, experiments were carried out in semi-batch mode with liquid circulation in a bubble column reactor with gas-liquid counter flow. Liquid samples were analyzed for CIP and total organic carbon (TOC) concentrations; ozone concentration in the gas was measured by UVvisible spectrophotometry. The effects of the following variables on CIP degradation were studied according to a Doehlert experimental design: inlet ozone concentration (8 to 25 mgO3 L-1), pH (3.5 to 10.5), initial CIP concentration (5 to 26 mg L-1). The following dependent variables were investigated by response surface analysis: variation in CIP concentration after 2 minutes; CIP initial degradation rate and variation in TOC concentration after 30 minutes. The results showed total degradation of ciprofloxacin in less than 15 minutes either by direct reaction with molecular ozone in acidic medium, or by indirect attack of hydroxyl radicals in alkaline medium. Compounds resulting from CIP degradation showed to be recalcitrant, yielding larger TOC removals after 30 minutes only in alkaline or neutral medium (maximum of 72.8% for pH=7, [O3]=24.9 mgO3 L-1, and [CIP]0=15.8 mg L-1). Despite the persistence of remaining organic compounds, respirometric assays suggested that degradation products are less toxic than the parent compound, exhibiting lower inhibition of microbial activity. Overall, the results indicate that the ozonation process can be used in the pre-treatment of aqueous effluents containing ciprofloxacin in low concentrations, and could be associated with biological treatment processes in wastewater treatment plants prior to final disposal.

Η φασματοσκοπία Raman θεωρείται αξιόπιστη μέθοδος χαρακτηρισμού της μοριακής δομής της ύλης. Τελευταία δε καταβάλλεται μεγάλη προσπάθεια να αναδειχθεί και ως μη επεμβατική τεχνική ανίχνευσης ουσιών φαρμακευτικού και βιολογικού ενδιαφέροντος. Επειδή όμως το φαινόμενο Raman είναι ασθενές και τα όρια ανίχνευσης των ουσιών αυτών ιδιαίτερα χαμηλά, η συμβατική φασματοσκοπία Raman ανταποκρίνεται με μεγάλη δυσκολία στις απαιτήσεις μιας μη επεμβατικής τεχνικής. Τα τελευταία χρόνια με την ανακάλυψη της επιφανειακής ενίσχυσης της σκέδασης Raman (Surface Enhanced Raman Scattering) και την ανάπτυξη της ομώνυμης τεχνικής SERS αυξήθηκε η πιθανότητα του φαινομένου κατά τάξεις μεγέθους. Στο πλαίσιο αυτό, έχουν αναφερθεί και μελέτες SERS με ανίχνευση σκέδασης Raman ακόμη και από ένα μόνο μόριο (single molecule detection). Προϋπόθεση όμως ανάπτυξης φαινομένου SERS είναι η γειτνίαση της εξεταζόμενης ουσίας με νανοσωματίδια αργύρου (Ag) ή χρυσού (Au). Τα νανοσωματίδια αυτά χρησιμοποιούνται κυρίως είτε υπό μορφή κολλοειδών διαλυμάτων είτε υπό την μορφή νανοδομημένων επιφανειών. Μια επιπλέον παράμετρος που πρέπει να συνυπολογισθεί ώστε η μέθοδος αυτή να χαρακτηριστεί αναλυτική είναι η δυνατότητα πραγματοποίησης με SERS ποσοτικών μετρήσεων. Στην παρούσα εργασία ως “υπόστρωμα” εμφάνισης του φαινομένου SERS χρησιμοποιήθηκαν κολλοειδή διαλύματα Au και Ag (~2 mL), στα οποία προστίθεντο 25-100 μL διαλύματος της προς ανίχνευσης ουσίας. Η χρησιμοποίηση της γεωμετρίας σκέδασης 90ο, της πλέον ενδεδειγμένης για λήψη φασμάτων Raman από υγρά και κολλοειδή διαλύματα νανομετρικής κλίμακας (10-100 nm), έδωσε τη δυνατότητα ανίχνευσης συγκεντρώσεων ουσιών-στόχων ακόμη και της τάξης των fg/mL. Επιπλέον, η χρησιμοποίηση μιας κυψελίδας με συνεχή ταλάντωση σε κάθετη ως προς το επίπεδο σκέδασης διεύθυνση (oscillating or shaking cell), επέτρεψε την πραγματοποίηση ποσοτικών μετρήσεων SERS σε συγκεντρώσεις της τάξης των (sub)-ng & (sub)-pg/mL. Η διάταξη αυτή φωταψίας δείγματος και συλλογής σκεδαζόμενης ακτινοβολίας εφαρμόστηκε σε αντικαρκινικά φάρμακα (Novantrone® & Doxorubicin), αντιβιοτικό (Ciproxin®) και βάσεις του DNA. Στην περίπτωση του αντιβιοτικού με ενεργή ουσία το Ciprofloxacin ελήφθησαν ποσοτικά αποτελέσματα σε διαλύματα τεχνητών δακρύων της τάξης των ng/mL, κάτω από την συνολική κλίμακα της μέσης ανασταλτικής πυκνότητας (minimum inhibitory concentration range) του φαρμάκου. Στόχος και φιλοδοξία είναι η τεχνική αυτή να αναδειχθεί ως μια ταχεία μη επεμβατική αναλυτική μέθοδος μέτρησης φαρμακευτικών ή/και βιολογικών ουσιών σε σωματικά υγρά (π.χ. σίελος, δάκρυα, …), για την μελέτη της φαρμακοκινητικής, την έγκαιρη διάγνωση ασθενειών καθώς και τη μελέτη ελεγχόμενης αποδέσμευσης ενεργών ουσιών από πολυμερικές μήτρες σε πολύ μικρές συγκεντρώσεις. Επιπλέον, έγινε προσπάθεια μελέτης/ανίχνευσης μορίων Ε18 primary rat cortical cells με την χρήση του SERS σε συνθήκες προσομοίωσης ηλεκτροχημικού εμφυτεύματος. Για τον λόγο αυτό σχεδιάστηκε και αναπτύχθηκε ένας μικρο-επωαστής (micro-incubator) που επιτρέπει αφ’ ενός μεν τη συντήρηση των κυττάρων σε περιβάλλον κατάλληλο για τη μελέτη τους (layer of Neurobasal-culture medium with a 95% air & 5% CO2 gas flow at 37oC), αφ’ ετέρου δε την προσαρμογή του σε χώρο υποδοχής δείγματος ενός φασματοφωτόμετρου μικρο-Raman για τη λήψη φασματοηλεκτροχημικών μετρήσεων Raman/SERS. Το κύριο σημείο ενδιαφέροντος στο οποίο εστιάσαμε στην παρούσα εργασία αναφέρεται στην διερεύνηση ανίχνευσης βασικών/θεμελιωδών μορίων των κυττάρων στo θρεπτικό υγρό του πειράματος για την ταχεία εκτίμηση ενδεχόμενης αποδέσμευσης DNA που θα αντικατόπτριζε την κατάσταση των κυττάρων. / Laser Raman spectroscopy plays an increasing important role in polymer science, biophysics/biochemistry and life science. Based on vibrational transitions, it has long been regarded as a valuable non destructive tool for the identification of chemical and biological samples as well as the elucidation of molecular structure, surface processes and interface reactions. Spontaneous Raman scattering is however an inherently weak process characterized by extremely small cross sections. Even so, the Raman signal can be highly enhanced when the analyte is placed on or near either to nano-rough noble-metal substrates or to nano-structured colloidal clusters of noble metals. This nano-enhanced scattering process is known as Surface Enhanced Raman Scattering, SERS. With SERS, extremely small amounts of substances can be detected; even single molecule detection has been reported. This constitutes a challenge of applying SERS to extremely low concentration measurements. Nevertheless, the quantitative evaluation by means of SERS was proved difficult, due largely to lack of nano-sized noble metal structures with analytically suitable stability and reproducibility. The commonly used SERS substrates are nanostructured colloids or roughened surfaces of mainly silver and gold undergoing visible or NIR excitation. A note is made of the fact that the Raman scattering geometry that is actually largely used is the backscattering geometry. For solids this is better achieved via a microscope objective, while for liquids via a macro lens. However, the best scattering geometry for Raman light collection from liquids and nanostructured colloids is the right angle scattering; that is, the scattered light is collected at 90o from the excitation light. Having all above in mind, in order to perform quantitative SERS measurements we have designed and developed an oscillating cell making use of the right angle Raman scattering geometry. Originally, the development of the oscillating or “shaking” cell allows large sample sectional surface monitoring, better mixing and homogeneity giving rise to SERS signal reproducibility. In addition, the application of the advantageous for nanocolloidal solutions right angle Raman scattering collection geometry enables SERS measurements at extremely low concentrations. We demonstrated the use this new surface enhanced Raman scattering excitation/collection configuration to monitor the level of the antitumor drugs mitoxantrone and doxorubicin as well as the antibiotic ciprofloxacin at very low concentrations performing fast SERS & SERRS measurements. We have also quantified the concentration of the active agents in aqueous solutions as well as in artificial tears by a partial least-squares (PLS) chemo metric regression algorithm. All above reveal the potential of this technique in the monitoring of the controlled release of active agents from polymeric matrices as well as in the quantitative analysis of drugs in corporal fluids. The only need is to add in a test tube containing 0.5 mL of a nanocolloidal noble metal solution3 about 25-100 μL of a sampling fluid. Finally, in an attempt to detect “living” cells by SERS, to identify DNA components released in a cell culture medium as a “touch mark” of cell death and to perform even single molecule detection, a home-made micro-incubator was designed to allow Raman measurements of neuron cells under the microscope. Commercial micro incubators feature higher optical path between coverslips than the required (<1-1,5 cm) for typical micro-Raman systems even bearing long working distance objectives. It was at that sense a prerequisite to design, construct and optimize a micro-incubator to fit a conventional micro-Raman configuration. The designed micro-incubator meets well-defined stable conditions (temperature, culture solution and atmosphere).

Os tratamentos convencionais de efluentes em geral não são eficientes para a degradação de compostos persistentes como os fármacos. Neste trabalho, estuda-se o tratamento de soluções aquosas contendo o antibiótico ciprofloxacina (CIP) por meio de processo oxidativo avançado baseado em ozônio. Para tanto, foram realizados experimentos em semi-batelada com recirculação de líquido em um reator (coluna de bolhas) com escoamento gás-líquido em contracorrente. Amostras de líquido foram retiradas e analisadas para medida das concentrações de CIP e de carbono orgânico total (COT); a concentração de ozônio no gás foi medida por espectrofotometria UV-vis. Estudaram-se os efeitos das seguintes variáveis quanto à degradação de CIP, por meio de um planejamento Doehlert: concentração de ozônio à entrada do reator (8-25 mgO3 L-1), pH (3,5-10,5) e concentração inicial de CIP (5-26 mg L-1). Avaliaram-se as seguintes variáveis dependentes por meio da análise de superfícies de resposta: variação de concentração de CIP em 2 minutos; taxa inicial de degradação de CIP e variação de concentração de COT em 30 minutos. Os resultados indicaram total degradação de ciprofloxacina em menos de 15 minutos, tanto por via direta, com ataque por ozônio molecular em meio ácido, como por via indireta, com ataque por radicais hidroxila em meio básico. Os compostos resultantes da degradação da CIP mostraram-se recalcitrantes, obtendo-se maiores remoções de COT após 30 minutos apenas em meio básico ou neutro (máximo de 72,8% para pH=7, [O3]=24,9 mgO3 L-1 e [CIP]0=15,8 mg L-1). Apesar da persistência dos compostos orgânicos remanescentes, os ensaios respirométricos sugeriram que os produtos de degradação são menos tóxicos que o composto de partida, com menor inibição da atividade microbiana. No conjunto, os resultados do trabalho indicam que o processo de ozonização pode ser aplicado para pré-tratamento de efluentes aquosos contendo ciprofloxacina em baixas concentrações, podendo ser associado a processos de tratamento biológico em ETEs antes do descarte. / Conventional wastewater treatment processes are not generally efficient for the degradation of persistent substances like pharmaceutical compounds. In this work, the treatment of aqueous solutions containing the antibiotic ciprofloxacin (CIP) by means of the ozone-based advanced oxidation process is studied. With this aim, experiments were carried out in semi-batch mode with liquid circulation in a bubble column reactor with gas-liquid counter flow. Liquid samples were analyzed for CIP and total organic carbon (TOC) concentrations; ozone concentration in the gas was measured by UVvisible spectrophotometry. The effects of the following variables on CIP degradation were studied according to a Doehlert experimental design: inlet ozone concentration (8 to 25 mgO3 L-1), pH (3.5 to 10.5), initial CIP concentration (5 to 26 mg L-1). The following dependent variables were investigated by response surface analysis: variation in CIP concentration after 2 minutes; CIP initial degradation rate and variation in TOC concentration after 30 minutes. The results showed total degradation of ciprofloxacin in less than 15 minutes either by direct reaction with molecular ozone in acidic medium, or by indirect attack of hydroxyl radicals in alkaline medium. Compounds resulting from CIP degradation showed to be recalcitrant, yielding larger TOC removals after 30 minutes only in alkaline or neutral medium (maximum of 72.8% for pH=7, [O3]=24.9 mgO3 L-1, and [CIP]0=15.8 mg L-1). Despite the persistence of remaining organic compounds, respirometric assays suggested that degradation products are less toxic than the parent compound, exhibiting lower inhibition of microbial activity. Overall, the results indicate that the ozonation process can be used in the pre-treatment of aqueous effluents containing ciprofloxacin in low concentrations, and could be associated with biological treatment processes in wastewater treatment plants prior to final disposal.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / Synthesis of ternary polyurethanes (PUs) from hexamethylenediisocyanate, β- cyclodextrin and β-glycerophosphate (acid and calcium salt) was studied varying synthesis parameters such as monomer proportion, heating method (reflux and microwave), and catalyst amount. Favorable conditions were provided by microwave irradiation and use of β-glycerophosphoric acid although the results suggest that it is possible to obtain ternary PUs with the calcium salt. FTIR data indicated the existence of secondary urea linkages. After characterization of ternary PUs by FTIR spectroscopy, XRD and thermal analysis, as well as evidences that the cyclodextrin cavities remained active toward inclusion of guest molecules, the possibility of inclusion of the antibiotic ciprofloxacin was evaluated. Absence of ciprofloxacin melting peak in DSC curves indicated that it is molecularly dispersed within the polymer, possibly included in the cyclodextrin. In vitro release experiments suggested additional non-inclusion interactions, showing also that the use of dialysis membranes may mask the actual release profile. / Nesta Tese foi estudada a síntese de poliuretanos ternários (PUs) à base de diisocianato de hexametileno, β-ciclodextrina e β -glicerofosfato (na forma de ácido e de sal de cálcio), sendo avaliados diferentes parâmetros de síntese, tais como proporção monômero, método de aquecimento (refluxo e microondas), bem como a quantidade de catalisador. As condições mais favoráveis foram fornecidas pela irradiação de microondas e a utilização de ácido β -glicerofosfórico, embora os resultados sugiram que é possível obter PU ternário com o sal de cálcio. Dados de FTIR indicaram a existência de ligações de uréia secundárias na estrutura dos poliuretanos. Após a caracterização dos PU’s ternários por espectroscopia de FTIR, XRD e análise térmica, obtiveram-se evidências de que as cavidades de β-ciclodextrina permaneceram ativas para a inclusão de moléculas hóspedes, usando-se fenolftaleína (FF) como sonda. Na seqüência, foi avaliada a possibilidade de inclusão do antibiótico ciprofloxacina. A ausência do pico de fusão ciprofloxacina em curvas de DSC indicou que este fármaco está molecularmente disperso dentro do polímero, com as moléculas possivelmente incluídas nas cavidades β-ciclodextrina. Experiências de liberação in vitro sugeriram interações não-inclusivas, mostrando também que a utilização de membranas de diálise pode mascarar o perfil de liberação efetiva.