La créativité occupe une place centrale dans la conception. Dans une perspective de conception participative, de co-conception, cette créativité est d’autant plus importante qu’elle est celle des futurs utilisateurs, permettant alors d’aboutir à de l’innovation utile. Notre thèse est qu’il est possible d’améliorer la pensée innovante des utilisateurs en quantité (nombre de propositions) et en qualité (degré d’originalité des propositions) en ayant une méthode d’interrogation des participants-utilisateurs basée sur le contrefactuel. En s’intéressant à la Créativité-Utilisateur dans les processus de co-conception sous l’angle de l’optimisation de ces processus, cette thèse s’inscrit dans une approche psycho-ergonomique de l’innovation avec l’objectif d’étudier la possibilité de favoriser la créativité chez les utilisateurs grâce à l’utilisation du raisonnement contrefactuel.Basée sur un modèle de l’apport du contrefactuel à la créativité et à l'innovation, notre hypothèse générale est que (i) la fixité fonctionnelle est un obstacle cognitif majeur dans des tâches nécessitant la créativité mais (ii) elle peut être contrariée par l’utilisation du raisonnement contrefactuel. Ainsi, de la forme « si [OBJETi] alors [pour ACTIONi ] », - par exemple « si Boîte d’allumettes alors Pour Allumer du feu » -, la fixité fonctionnelle serait contrariée en demandant aux participant d’envisager le cas où « si [OBJETi] et [ NON pour ACTIONi ] alors [pour quelles AUTRES ACTIONS] » par exemple « si Boîte d’allumettes et non Pour Allumer du feu ; alors Pour Quoi faire d’autre ? ». En appliquant cette consigne, on devrait voir émerger plus d’idées créatives que dans des tâches habituelles de production d’idées innovantes. La thèse restitue la menée de série de six études, avec la participation d’utilisateurs finaux adultes et enfants, en situation de co-conception créative, allant du plus conceptuel (concevoir les propriétés sur de futurs objets) au plus pratique (la réalisation d’un prototype). Les deux premières études montrent l’apport de la pensée contrefactuelle à la technique de l’entretien semi-direct de recherche (sections 1.1 et 1.2) lorsque des items contrefactuels y sont intégrés. La deuxième et la troisième étude évaluent l’apport de la pensée contrefactuelle à la technique du Focus Group (sections 2.1 et 2.2) ; des items contrefactuels étant intégrés au guide des questions adressées au Focus Group. La quatrième et la cinquième étude analysent l’apport de la pensée contrefactuelle au Brainstorming (sections 3.1 et 3.2) en intégrant des contextes contrefactuels lors des séances de brainstorming et de brainwriting.En résumé, les travaux de thèse mettent en évidence que l’utilisation du raisonnement contrefactuel dans des tâches de créativité amoindrit la fixité fonctionnelle relative à une catégorie en optimisant la production d’idées créatives issues d’autres catégories. / Creativity has a core function in design. Creativity is even more important in the perspective of a participatory design, «co-design», when it comes from future users as it leads to useful innovation. By focusing on users’ creativity in the co-conception processes in terms of the optimization, this thesis is part of a psycho-ergonomic approach to innovation with the objective of studying the possibility of fostering creativity among users. Our proposal is that it is possible to improve users' innovative thinking in quantity (number of proposals) as well as in quality (degree of originality of the proposals) by using a counterfactual-based method for participant-user queries.Based on a model of counterfactual contribution to creativity and innovation, our general assumption is that (i) functional fixity is a major cognitive obstacle in tasks requiring creativity and (ii) functional fixity may be counteracted by the use of counterfactual reasoning. Thus, from rules such as "if [OBJETi] then [for ACTIONi]" - (for instance "if Matchbox then to ignite"), functional fixity would be thwarted by asking participants to consider the following counterfactual " If [OBJETi] and [NOT for ACTIONi] then [for what OTHER ACTIONS] (for instance " if Matchbox and not to ignite; Then for what else? "). By applying this guideline, more creative ideas should emerge than in usual tasks of producing innovative ideas.The thesis is reporting a serie of six studies, with the participation of adult and child end-users embedded in creative co-design situations, ranging from conceptual (designing functional and procedural properties on future objects) to the most practical (the making of a prototype). The first two studies show the contribution of counterfactual thinking to the technique of semi-directed research interviewing (sections 1.1 and 1.2) when counterfactual items are integrated into it. The second and third studies evaluate the contribution of counterfactual thinking to the Focus Group technique (sections 2.1 and 2.2) with counterfactual items included in the questions list. The fourth and fifth studies analyze the contribution of counterfactual thinking to Brainstorming (sections 3.1 and 3.2) by integrating counterfactual contexts during brainstorming and brainwriting sessions.In summary, the thesis works show that the use of counterfactual reasoning in tasks of creativity reduces the functional fixity relative to a category by optimizing the production of creative ideas coming from other categories.

The aim of this research is to examine the role of practice in collaboration between designers and African craft producers in order to develop a different methodology for future exchanges that can be more sustainable and equitable. It looks to determine how craft and design practices can act as tools for communication and exchange, to examine how to foster meaningful collaboration when the relationship of those involved is inequitable and to develop a co-creation methodology for practice, capitalising on the differing skills, experiences and cultures of those involved. The research explores collaboration through making with two Cape Town based, craft businesses - Imiso Ceramics and Kunye - investigating the interactions that occur between the collaborators. A critical contextual review reveals the majority of such partnerships are instigated from the top down with an emphasis on product development. This study proposes that the focus is shifted to one that is human-centred, where the process of collaboration between the people involved is foregrounded. By strengthening the collaborative relationships and giving all participants an equal voice, the process becomes more productive, with product development an inherent result. Using a practice based, participatory design methodology, the work draws on the African notion of ubuntu, which speaks of people's interconnectedness. Applying the cross-disciplinary practices of all three collaborators, products are developed, provoking a dialogue that challenges the designer's role in the developing world. The research culminates in an exhibition of the journey, conversations, issues and outcomes that occurred throughout. The exhibition provides an opportunity to provoke a conversation with the stakeholders, listening to their experiences and gaining their feedback on the work presented. Practical exercises for participatory design in future cross-cultural, cross-disciplinary contexts are presented.

This thesis investigates the role of co-design in the design and development of services that help householders to make decisions to make their homes more energy efficient by installing energy saving measures. The key issues facing co-design research are (1) the lack of understanding of how to increase and assess its impact and effectiveness, and (2) the provision of empirical evidence of the benefits associated with it. This thesis identifies and reviews different theoretical approaches to help provide evidence of the benefits associated with co-design (Chapter 2), adopting, applying and testing them throughout the empirical work. Research methods are also discussed alongside the particular challenges facing co-design research (Chapter 3). An exploratory study involving co-design practitioners (Chapter 4) confirmed what was shown to be lacking in the co-design literature, concluding with a need to focus on assessing the impact and effectiveness of co-design processes both theoretically and practically. A mixed methods study follows (Chapter 5) that took a service design perspective to identify how co-design could be applied to the design of energy advice and information, to explore householders individual decisions in detail, and to engage with householders to aid their understanding of the complex and intangible topic of energy . Chapters 6 and 7 then describe how co-design was applied to energy-related retrofit: firstly assessing the impact of co-design on householder s quality judgements of personalised information-based energy advice reports (i.e. the resulting designs from the co-design process), and secondly focusing on impact of the process aspect of co-design (i.e. what goes on ) on householders energy-related retrofit intentions, decisions and behaviours (i.e. the outcomes). Evidence of the benefits associated with co-design is provided including impact on the quality of resulting designs, and the role of co-design in enabling detailed understanding of peoples lived experiences and circumstances. The limitations of the particular analysis approach taken are then reported. The final study (Chapter 8) co-designs future energy-related service propositions with householders, building and energy technologists and user centred designers, highlighting the potential roles for smart energy data . The study concludes that immersing future end users into complex problem spaces is useful for co-designing future service propositions, and that it is beneficial to introduce wider stakeholders to develop concepts further. In understanding the outcomes of these studies, this thesis discusses (Chapter 9) the application of co-design to the energy-related retrofit domain, focusing in particular on (1) the implications of the approach taken to assessing the impact and effectiveness of co-design processes, (2) the benefits and drawbacks of incorporating personalised energy information in co-design activities, and (3) the limitations of integrating measures of impact and effectiveness into collaborative activities. Recommendations for the effective application of co-design are also presented. In conclusion, specific contributions and avenues for further work are highlighted (Chapter 10).

Designers e profissionais de diversas áreas de conhecimento têm utilizado a Etnografia com o intuito de aproximar a teoria da realidade na qual pode ser aplicada. No processo de design, a Etnografia propõe uma forma empática de abordar pessoas em seu ambiente de vivência, auxiliando o designer a conhecer a realidade do grupo da forma mais natural possível. Assim, o designer torna-se mais propenso a compreender melhor o comportamento das pessoas e identificar necessidades reais a serem atendidas. Esta pesquisa teve como objetivo elaborar um Framework para auxiliar o designer na realização da pesquisa com usuários, utilizando métodos que partem de uma abordagem etnográfica para identificar as necessidades de um grupo de pessoas. Para tanto, a revisão de literatura abrangeu o estudo da Etnografia e sua aproximação com a disciplina de Design, concentrando-se, em seguida, nos métodos de pesquisa com usuários. A partir disso, foi possível estabelecer categorias de métodos que se baseiam em diferentes formas de participação do usuário na pesquisa, incluindo métodos comumente aplicados em pesquisas de Marketing, métodos provenientes da Etnografia e métodos com influência do Co-design. Após a revisão de literatura, deu-se início ao desenvolvimento do Framework para Pesquisa com Usuários, realizado em três momentos. Inicialmente, foram definidas as etapas que compõem a pesquisa com usuários; em seguida, foram definidos os manuais e livros utilizados como fontes de referência; por fim, realizou-se uma triagem para selecionar os métodos de pesquisa com usuários. A triagem foi dividida em quatro etapas (listagem, mapeamento, agrupamento e seleção), abrangendo 337 métodos retirados das fontes de referência. Ao final, foram selecionados 45 métodos caracterizados a partir de uma abordagem etnográfica e agrupados de acordo com as categorias estabelecidas. O resultado deste estudo é composto por sugestões sobre importantes aspectos a serem considerados durante a pesquisa com usuários e pelo “Framework para Pesquisa com Usuários”, estruturado em três etapas (Planejar, Coletar, e Organizar), que contém as sugestões elaboradas de forma resumida e os métodos passíveis de aplicação, em conformidade com o objetivo de cada etapa. / Designers and professionals from various fields of knowledge have been used Ethnography in order to bring the theory for the reality in which it can be applied. In design process, Ethnography proposes an empathic manner to approach the user in its context, assisting the designer to know people’s life in the most natural way as possible. Thus, the designer becomes more likely to better understand people’s behaviour and identify real needs to be addressed. This research aimed to develop a Framework to assist the designer in conducting users research, using methods based on an ethnographic approach in order to identify real needs of a group. For such purpose, the literature review covered the study of Ethnography and its approximation with Design discipline, focusing then on methods for users research. From this, it was possible to establish categories of methods that are based on different forms of user participation in research, including methods generally used in Marketing research, methods from Ethnography, and methods influenced by Co-design. After the literature review, the development of the Framework for Users Research was performed in three moments. Initially, the steps of user research were defined; then the manuals and books used as reference sources were defined; and finally, a screening for select methods of user research was carried out. The screening was divided into four stages (listing, mapping, grouping, and selection) including 337 methods taken from reference sources. A whole of 45 methods were selected and characterized from an ethnographic approach, then they were grouped according to the established categories. The result of this study is composed by suggestions about important aspects to be considered during the user research; and by the “Framework for Users Research” structured in three stages – Planning, Collecting, and Organizing, that contains the suggestions briefly and the methods that can be applied in accordance with the purpose of each stage.

Este trabalho aborda o problema de controle baseado em eventos para sistemas em tempo discreto, considerando que o sistema possui os dispositivos atuadores e sensores em nós diferentes e separados por uma rede de comunicação. A estratégia baseada em eventos consiste em reduzir a utilização da rede ao transmitir as informações do sensor para o atuador apenas quando um evento é gerado pela violação de um determinado limiar pela função de disparo. Primeiramente, são formuladas condições para a estabilidade de um sistema linear com realimentação estática de estados sob a estratégia proposta, com base na teoria de Lyapunov. Como as condições são postas na forma de desigualdades matriciais lineares (LMIs, do inglês linear matrix inequalities), problemas de otimização convexos podem ser utilizados na determinação dos parâmetros da função de disparo, bem como na resolução do problema de co-design, ou seja, do projeto simultâneo do controlador e da função de disparo, os quais são providos na sequência. A partir deste resultado básico, a metodologia é estendida para o caso em que ocorre a saturação do atuador. A seguir, é apresentada a extensão da metodologia para o caso em que o estado da planta não está disponível para o sensor, sendo então utlizado um observador de estados, considerando-se tanto o caso em que o modelo da planta utilizado no observador corresponde exatamente à dinâmica real da planta quanto o caso em que este modelo apresenta incertezas. Exemplos numéricos são apresentados para ilustrar todas as classes de sistemas consideradas, com os quais constata-se que a estratégia proposta é eficiente na redução da utilização dos recursos da rede de comunicação. / This work approaches the problem of event-triggered control for discrete time systems, considering that the system has the actuator and sensor devices in different nodes, separated by a communication network. The event-triggered strategy consists in reducing the utilization of the network by only transmitting the information from the sensor to the actuator when an event is generated by the violation of a determined threshold by the trigger function. Firstly, conditions for the stability of a linear system with a static state feedback under the proposed strategy are formulated based on the Lyapunov theory. Since the conditions are given in the form of linear matrix inequalities (LMIs), convex optimization problems can be used for the determination of the trigger function parameters, as well as the co-design of the feedback gain and the trigger function, which are given next. From this basic result, the methodology is extended to the case where occurs the saturation of the actuator. Following, the extension of the methodlogy to the case in which the plant states are not available for measure is presented, and a state-observer is used, considering both the case that the plant model corresponds exactly to the real plant dynamics and the case where this model has uncertainties. Numeric examples are shown to illustrate all the system classes considered, with which it is found that the proposed strategy is efficient in the reduction of the network resources utilization.

abstract: Study in user experience design states that there is a considerable gap between users and designers. Collaborative design and empathetic design methods attempt to make a strong relationship between these two. In participatory design activities, projective `make tools' are required for users to show their thoughts. This research is designed to apply an empathetic way of using `make tools' in user experience design for websites clients, users, and designers. A magnetic wireframe tool has been used as a `make tool', and a sample project has been defined in order to see how the tool can create empathy among stakeholders. In this study fourth year graphic design students at Arizona State University (ASU), USA, are participating as users, faculty members have the role of clients, and Forty, Inc., a design firm in the Phoenix area, is the design team for the study. All of these three groups are cooperating on re-designing the homepage of the Design School in Herberger Institute for Design and Art (HIDA) at ASU. A method for applying the magnetic tool was designed and used for each group. Results of users and clients' activities were shared with the design team, and they designed a final prototype for the wireframe of the sample project. Observation and interviews were done to see how participants work with the tool. Also, follow up questionnaires were used in order to evaluate all groups' experiences with the magnetic wireframe. Lastly, as a part of questionnaires, a sentence completion method has been used in order to collect the participants' exact thoughts about the magnetic tool. Observations and results of data analysis in this research show that the tool was a helpful `make tool' for users and clients. They could talk about their ideas and also designers could learn more about people. The entire series of activities caused an empathetic relationship among stakeholders of the sample project. This method of using `make tools' in user experience design for web sites can be useful for collaborative UX design activities and further research in user experience design with empathy. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Design 2014

abstract: This interpretive research examines the phenomenon of people who engage in designing for themselves in a world in which this is no longer necessary. For in this Schumpeterian society – one can simply purchase from a plethora of products and services that are designed by professionals, generated by producers, and made available for purchase via a myriad of channels. So why do people bother designing for ourselves? Drawing on in-depth interviews, this research provides insights into individuals who choose to participate in the design process. The findings that follow are from a representative study of individuals who recently were involved in designing their home kitchen. Results show that by engaging in design endeavors these informants received not only instrumental value (speed, efficiency) and economic value (money saved), but also socio-psychological value (signaling identity, desire for uniqueness) and transcendental value (joy, wonder, satisfaction). Framing these findings according to three foundational design actions – using, ideating, and making, the researcher developed a segmentation typology of the multi-faceted roles that people play in the act of designing. This study contributes to the existing literature by: (1) broadening the dyadic perspectives of provider and consumer roles in the realization of a design outcome; (2) revealing that when one engages in designing a desired outcome they create a deeper, more authentic, and abiding signaler of self than when we purchase what we seek; (3) extending design theory beyond the prevailing view that embeds the value of a design in outcome – the tool; and humans as homer faber, tool makers. Managerial and design practice implications offer specific suggestions for building and nurturing people in their design endeavors. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Design 2015

Este trabalho aborda o problema de controle baseado em eventos para sistemas em tempo discreto, considerando que o sistema possui os dispositivos atuadores e sensores em nós diferentes e separados por uma rede de comunicação. A estratégia baseada em eventos consiste em reduzir a utilização da rede ao transmitir as informações do sensor para o atuador apenas quando um evento é gerado pela violação de um determinado limiar pela função de disparo. Primeiramente, são formuladas condições para a estabilidade de um sistema linear com realimentação estática de estados sob a estratégia proposta, com base na teoria de Lyapunov. Como as condições são postas na forma de desigualdades matriciais lineares (LMIs, do inglês linear matrix inequalities), problemas de otimização convexos podem ser utilizados na determinação dos parâmetros da função de disparo, bem como na resolução do problema de co-design, ou seja, do projeto simultâneo do controlador e da função de disparo, os quais são providos na sequência. A partir deste resultado básico, a metodologia é estendida para o caso em que ocorre a saturação do atuador. A seguir, é apresentada a extensão da metodologia para o caso em que o estado da planta não está disponível para o sensor, sendo então utlizado um observador de estados, considerando-se tanto o caso em que o modelo da planta utilizado no observador corresponde exatamente à dinâmica real da planta quanto o caso em que este modelo apresenta incertezas. Exemplos numéricos são apresentados para ilustrar todas as classes de sistemas consideradas, com os quais constata-se que a estratégia proposta é eficiente na redução da utilização dos recursos da rede de comunicação. / This work approaches the problem of event-triggered control for discrete time systems, considering that the system has the actuator and sensor devices in different nodes, separated by a communication network. The event-triggered strategy consists in reducing the utilization of the network by only transmitting the information from the sensor to the actuator when an event is generated by the violation of a determined threshold by the trigger function. Firstly, conditions for the stability of a linear system with a static state feedback under the proposed strategy are formulated based on the Lyapunov theory. Since the conditions are given in the form of linear matrix inequalities (LMIs), convex optimization problems can be used for the determination of the trigger function parameters, as well as the co-design of the feedback gain and the trigger function, which are given next. From this basic result, the methodology is extended to the case where occurs the saturation of the actuator. Following, the extension of the methodlogy to the case in which the plant states are not available for measure is presented, and a state-observer is used, considering both the case that the plant model corresponds exactly to the real plant dynamics and the case where this model has uncertainties. Numeric examples are shown to illustrate all the system classes considered, with which it is found that the proposed strategy is efficient in the reduction of the network resources utilization.

Designers e profissionais de diversas áreas de conhecimento têm utilizado a Etnografia com o intuito de aproximar a teoria da realidade na qual pode ser aplicada. No processo de design, a Etnografia propõe uma forma empática de abordar pessoas em seu ambiente de vivência, auxiliando o designer a conhecer a realidade do grupo da forma mais natural possível. Assim, o designer torna-se mais propenso a compreender melhor o comportamento das pessoas e identificar necessidades reais a serem atendidas. Esta pesquisa teve como objetivo elaborar um Framework para auxiliar o designer na realização da pesquisa com usuários, utilizando métodos que partem de uma abordagem etnográfica para identificar as necessidades de um grupo de pessoas. Para tanto, a revisão de literatura abrangeu o estudo da Etnografia e sua aproximação com a disciplina de Design, concentrando-se, em seguida, nos métodos de pesquisa com usuários. A partir disso, foi possível estabelecer categorias de métodos que se baseiam em diferentes formas de participação do usuário na pesquisa, incluindo métodos comumente aplicados em pesquisas de Marketing, métodos provenientes da Etnografia e métodos com influência do Co-design. Após a revisão de literatura, deu-se início ao desenvolvimento do Framework para Pesquisa com Usuários, realizado em três momentos. Inicialmente, foram definidas as etapas que compõem a pesquisa com usuários; em seguida, foram definidos os manuais e livros utilizados como fontes de referência; por fim, realizou-se uma triagem para selecionar os métodos de pesquisa com usuários. A triagem foi dividida em quatro etapas (listagem, mapeamento, agrupamento e seleção), abrangendo 337 métodos retirados das fontes de referência. Ao final, foram selecionados 45 métodos caracterizados a partir de uma abordagem etnográfica e agrupados de acordo com as categorias estabelecidas. O resultado deste estudo é composto por sugestões sobre importantes aspectos a serem considerados durante a pesquisa com usuários e pelo “Framework para Pesquisa com Usuários”, estruturado em três etapas (Planejar, Coletar, e Organizar), que contém as sugestões elaboradas de forma resumida e os métodos passíveis de aplicação, em conformidade com o objetivo de cada etapa. / Designers and professionals from various fields of knowledge have been used Ethnography in order to bring the theory for the reality in which it can be applied. In design process, Ethnography proposes an empathic manner to approach the user in its context, assisting the designer to know people’s life in the most natural way as possible. Thus, the designer becomes more likely to better understand people’s behaviour and identify real needs to be addressed. This research aimed to develop a Framework to assist the designer in conducting users research, using methods based on an ethnographic approach in order to identify real needs of a group. For such purpose, the literature review covered the study of Ethnography and its approximation with Design discipline, focusing then on methods for users research. From this, it was possible to establish categories of methods that are based on different forms of user participation in research, including methods generally used in Marketing research, methods from Ethnography, and methods influenced by Co-design. After the literature review, the development of the Framework for Users Research was performed in three moments. Initially, the steps of user research were defined; then the manuals and books used as reference sources were defined; and finally, a screening for select methods of user research was carried out. The screening was divided into four stages (listing, mapping, grouping, and selection) including 337 methods taken from reference sources. A whole of 45 methods were selected and characterized from an ethnographic approach, then they were grouped according to the established categories. The result of this study is composed by suggestions about important aspects to be considered during the user research; and by the “Framework for Users Research” structured in three stages – Planning, Collecting, and Organizing, that contains the suggestions briefly and the methods that can be applied in accordance with the purpose of each stage.

Projektet "Individuella Koppar" - som jag sammanfattar i denna rapport - är uppbyggd kring ett antal teman, dessa är: teknik, användarbehov, co-creation och gestaltning.   Mitt arbete grundar sig i hur majoriteten av massproducerade produkter i dagens samhälle inte tar hänsyn till de olikheter, begränsningar och möjligheter som våra kroppar har. Jag valde utifrån detta att arbeta med olika funktionsvariationer och fokusera på användarens händer och deras relation till koppen och handtaget. Handen är den mest anpassningsbara kroppsdelen vi människor har, men också drycken som grunden för vår överlevnad. Syftet var att koppens och handtagens former mer effektivt ska kunna ge stöd och utgå från användarens olika behov. Min metod är den additiva produktionsmetoden - 3D printning i porslinslera - där jag har utforskat möjligheten till att fler produkter anpassas med och utifrån individen.